tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45518620504755590222024-02-05T21:13:31.911-06:00Seeker of LibertyWidower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-10792571709952258622023-08-31T23:03:00.000-05:002023-08-31T23:03:15.213-05:00Revised Articles of Confederation<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Revision
of the Articles of Confederation<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We, the people of the several states, each state
acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a more
perfect confederation of states, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility
and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Legislature<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
legislative powers herein delegated shall be vested in a Congress of the United
States <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress of the United States shall be composed of three Senators from each state,
chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, <span style="background: white;">with a power reserved to a two-thirds majority of each
legislature to recall its Senators, or any of them</span>; and each state shall
have one vote in the Congress except during an impeachment when each Senator
shall have one vote.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Immediately
after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall
be divided equally into three classes, each class composed of one member of
each state delegation so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if
vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature
of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years,
and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall choose their Speaker and other officers. In the absence of the
President of the United States, the Speaker of the Congress shall exercise the
Office of President of the United States until a new President is chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall have the sole power of impeachment of all persons holding any
office of profit or trust under of the United States. When sitting for that purpose,
they shall be on oath or affirmation. <a name="_Hlk107406422">No office holder
shall be impeached without the concurrence of three-fifths of the members
present.<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators shall be prescribed
in each state by the legislature thereof. The Congress shall not make or alter
any regulation in any state respecting the places and manner of holding
elections for Senators unless the legislature of such state shall neglect or
refuse to make laws or regulations for the purpose, or from any circumstance be
incapable of making the same; and then only until the legislature of such state
shall make such provision.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall
begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a
different day.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its
own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business;
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to
compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties
as the Congress may provide.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for
disorderly behavior and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by
law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all
cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from
arrest during their attendance at the session of the Congress, and in going to
and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in the Congress, they
shall not be questioned in any other place.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
Senator shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any
civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time:
and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of the
Congress during his continuance in office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall keep a journal of its proceedings and from time to time and at
least once per annum, publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of the Congress on any
question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any
place within the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators shall take effect
until an election of Senators shall have intervened.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill, order or resolution, declarations of war notwithstanding, which shall
have passed the Congress shall be presented to the Constitutional Council of
the United States. The Constitutional Council shall only determine if the bill is
in full compliance with all the articles of this Constitution and any
amendments thereto. If it approves, the Constitutional Council shall transmit the
bill to the President but if not, the Constitutional Council shall return it,
with its objections to the Congress, which shall enter the objections at large
on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the Constitutional Council, shall, before
it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he
approves, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections
to the Congress which shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration a majority of the Congress
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall become a law. If any bill shall not be
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall
have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he
had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in
which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
order, resolution (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to
the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect,
shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by a
majority of the Congress, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in
the case of a bill.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject,
and that shall be expressed in the title.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall have limited enumerated powers <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish means for allowing the people and states to voluntarily engage in
activity that provides revenue for the United States, and establish fees, charges
and excises to defray all the expenses of general services provided by law, but
revenues from such fees, charges and excises shall not exceed the expense and
maintenance of the services provided;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
borrow money on the credit of the United States provided three-fourths of the Congress
approves;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform rules of citizenship, immigration and naturalization;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United
States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
fix the standard of weights and measures based only on the International System
of Units;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and
offenses against the law of nations;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work
corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person
attainted;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare war, provided two-thirds of the Congress approves, and every
declaration of war shall expire one year thereafter unless two-thirds of the Congress
shall authorize an additional year, each year thereafter;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on
land, air and water in the event war shall have been declared;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
raise and support defense forces, but no appropriation of money to that use
shall be for a longer term than two years; and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">standing armies, in time of peace,
are dangerous to liberty and therefore ought to be avoided, as far as the
circumstances and protection of the community will admit; and in all cases, the
military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil
power;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for the defense of the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make rules for the government and regulation of the defense forces of the
United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for calling forth the organized militia to execute the laws of the confederation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for arming and disciplining the organized militia and for governing
such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States,
reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the
authority of training the organized militia according to the discipline
prescribed by the Congress;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such nonresident
District (not exceeding five kilometers square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of the Congress, become the seat of the
government of the United States; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory
or other property belonging to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make all laws which shall be both necessary and proper for carrying into
execution only the foregoing enumerated powers, and all other enumerated powers
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall have no authority<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
pass a bill of attainder or ex post facto law;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
lay a tax or duty on articles exported from any state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
give preference by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be
obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
draw money from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law;
and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public
money shall be published from time to time and at least once per annum;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant titles of nobility by the United States with the exceptions defined in
Article VIII: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them,
shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument,
office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any foreign state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make laws respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedoms of thought and speech, or of the press or written word; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
government for a redress of grievances;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law defining a criminal act with the exceptions enumerated in Section P;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
authorize any use of military force by any bill, order, resolution or vote other
than a declaration of war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger
as will not admit of delay;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
institute compulsory service to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
call forth the unorganized militia to execute the laws of the confederation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law to interfere in or regulate the interstate commerce of the people
of the United States or law impairing the obligation of contracts or to mandate
actions by any individual including those in furtherance of any economic or
commercial policy;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and free exchange
of goods and services;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial, financial or
industrial enterprise;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide any money to any state or engage with any state to perform any policy,
program or other service;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
coin money, <a name="_Hlk76075958">regulate the value thereof and of foreign
coin</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Head of State<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the United States shall be the head of state of the United States.
He shall hold his office during one term of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be elected, as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l45 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
legislature of each state shall appoint a number of electors, equal to the
whole number of electors to which the state may be entitled: but no Senator or
person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be
appointed an elector. The number of electors shall be apportioned to each state
according to the decennial census from a total of three hundred fifty electors.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l45 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for
President; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and
of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to
the President of the Congress. The President of the Congress shall, in the
presence of the Congress, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having
the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as
President, the Congress shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But
in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall
consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of
all the states shall be necessary to a choice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which
they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United
States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person except a natural born citizen shall be eligible to the office of
President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
resident within the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall not be a member of the Congress or of the legislature of any
state nor shall the President hold any other office of profit or trust of the
United States or any of the several states for a period of five years before
his election.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation,
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other
emolument from the United States, or any of them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Before
he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or
affirmation: "I do solemnly swear
(or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the
United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the President of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall designate the head of government who shall execute the laws of
the United States and appoint the other principal officers of the executive
departments with the exception of the officer charged with the administration
of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall have power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and
pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Congress,
shall appoint ambassadors, judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts and
councilors of the Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be commander in chief of the defense forces of the United
States, and of the organized militia of the several states, when called into
the actual service of the United States. The command of the defense forces of
the United States shall be exercised by the head of government.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds
of said state legislature, shall appoint the Governor for that state. The Governor
shall be the head of state for the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President may, on extraordinary occasions, convene or adjourn the Congress to
such time as he shall think proper.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers and heads of
state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall commission all the officers of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President and all civil officers of the United States <a name="_Hlk107406395">shall
be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery,
other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other behavior that renders them unfit
for office. <o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><a name="_Hlk79786273"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Whenever
the President transmits to the Head of Government his written declaration that
he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he
transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties
shall be discharged by the Speaker of the Congress as Acting President.<o:p></o:p></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In Case of the removal of the President
from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Speaker of the Congress
until a new President is chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Head of Government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
principal officer chosen by the President to execute the laws of the United
States shall be the head of government. No individual shall hold the office of
two executive departments simultaneously nor shall the head of government hold
any other appointed office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the head of government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall give to the Congress information of the state of the confederation,
and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary
and expedient.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Congress,
to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Congress concurs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
the Congress, shall appoint all other officers of the United States, whose appointments
are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law:
but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as
they think proper, in the Head of Government alone, in the courts of law, or in
the heads of departments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the Traditional
Leaders, upon any subject relating to customary law within traditional
communities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the
duties of their respective offices.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l43 level2 lfo31; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall remain in office during the pleasure of the Congress
and subject to the limits of all Senators to remain in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Judiciary<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court
consisting of no more than nine judges and in such inferior courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at
stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be
diminished during their continuance in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judges of the Supreme Court shall appoint the officer in charge of executing
the administration of justice for the United States. The officer in charge of
executing the administration of justice shall hold their office during one term
of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, including those
brought by citizens or the several states to challenge acts of Congress, the
head of state or the head of government, which are contrary to this
Constitution including the unlawful expenditure of funds, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to
controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies
between two or more states;--between citizens of different states, and between
citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any
suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States
by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those
in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original
jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and
under such regulations as the Congress shall make.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such
trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been
committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Treason
against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or
in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be
convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt
act, or on confession in open court.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
bill referred to The Congress by the Constitutional Council shall be reviewed
by the Supreme Court or inferior courts. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
warrants shall issue, <a name="_Hlk77626787">but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation</a>, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized and that general warrants,
whereby an officer may be commanded to search suspected places, without
evidence of the fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named,
whose offences are not particularly described and supported by evidence, are dangerous
to liberty and ought not be granted.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No person shall be held to answer for an
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except
in cases arising in the defense forces, or in the organized militia, when in
actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject
for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property, nor for the same
overt act be subject to be put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property
other than by the state or district where the said crimes shall have been
committed and in no other jurisdiction; nor shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of liberty, or property,
without procedural due process of law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
assistance of counsel for his defense.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In suits at common law the right of trial by
jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
reexamined in any court of the United </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">States, than according to
the rules of the common law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Bail
shall not be imposed but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation
of alleged violence committed by the accused or upon procedural due process of
law, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">V.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Constitutional Council<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo46; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Constitutional Council shall consist of no more than nine councilors.
Constitutional Council members shall hold their offices during good behavior,
and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. The decisions of
the Constitutional Council shall not be considered by the President when
deciding to reject or sign any bill, the several states when deciding to
nullify any law or any decision of the Supreme or inferior courts. The
principle of stare decisis shall not apply to any decision of the
Constitutional Council. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo46; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Constitutional Council shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court shall preside: and no office holder shall be convicted without the
concurrence of six councilors.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo46; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Judgment
in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office
and once removed, disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust
or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless
be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according
to law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VI.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Full
faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and
judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws
prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be
proved, and the effect thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens
in the several states and no state shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of each state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall
flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the
executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be
removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall enter into any treaty, alliance; grant letters of marque and reprisal;
coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin; emit bills of credit;
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation
of contracts, or grant any title of nobility with the exceptions defined in
Article VIII.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports
or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its
inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United
States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops,
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with
another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually
invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall interfere in the commerce of the people of the state, or any other
state, or mandate actions by any individual in furtherance of any economic or
commercial policy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial,
financial or industrial enterprise.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms except in
consequence to a conviction for an infamous crime or upon an adjudication of
incapacity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deprive any person of liberty, or property, without procedural due
process of law. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of
the laws.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and
free exchange of goods and services.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">New
states may be admitted by the Congress into this confederation; but no new state
shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state
be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without
the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Nothing
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the
United States, or of any particular state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
United States shall guarantee to every state in this confederation a representative
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application
of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be
convened) against domestic violence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
several states may nullify any law of the United States, whenever three-fifths
of the legislatures of the several states choose to nullify such law. This must
occur within twelve months of the enactment of the law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power,
jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Constitution forbidden or
expressly delegated to the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l32 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
powers of the Governor shall be those of a head of state. The powers of the
Governors as head of state will be defined by the states but shall include the
following.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level4 lfo45; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall designate the principal officer who shall execute the laws of
the state and appoint the other principal officers of the executive departments
on the basis of the vote of confidence of the most numerous branch of the state
legislature, with the exception of the officer charged with the administration
of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo45; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">have power to grant
reprieves, commutations, exonerations, and pardons for offenses against the
state, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo45; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the legislature,
shall appoint judges of the state Courts and councilors of any state
Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo45; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo45; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the state legislature and state
Constitutional Council, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
Governor; if he approves, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it,
with his objections to the legislature, which shall enter the objections at
large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
reconsideration a majority of the legislature shall agree to pass the bill, it
shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of the legislature shall be
determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and
against the bill shall be entered on the journal of the legislature. If any
bill shall not be returned by the Governor within ten days (Sundays excepted)
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like
manner as if he had signed it, unless the legislature by their adjournment
prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo44; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Governors
appointed by the President shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of, treason, bribery, other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other
behavior that renders them unfit for office by the legislature of the state. No
office holder shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the
members of the legislative body empowered to try impeachments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VII.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Amendments,
alterations or abolishing in whole or in part<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Whenever
two thirds of the Congress shall deem it necessary, or on the application of
the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall propose to amend,
alter or abolish this Constitution in whole or in part, which, in either case,
shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when
ratified by a two thirds majority of each of the legislatures of three fourths
of the several States within ten years of its submission to the states; provided
that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in
the Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">VIII. Traditional Leaders<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Traditional
Leaders are any person who, in terms of customary law of the traditional
community concerned, holds a traditional leadership position.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
community may be recognized as a traditional community if it is subject to a
system of traditional leadership in terms of the customs of that community, and
observes a system of customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
institution, status and role of traditional leadership, according to customary
law, are recognized, subject to the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
traditional authority that observes a system of customary law may function
subject to the Congress and customs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the
Constitution and any legislation specific to customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall provide a role for traditional leadership as an institution to
deal with matters relating to traditional leadership, the role of traditional
leaders, customary law and the customs of communities observing a system of
customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress or the states may provide for the establishment of houses of
traditional leaders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">IX. <a name="_Hlk73103365">Additional Provisions<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this
Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this
Constitution, as under the previous Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance
thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of
the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in
every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of
any state to the contrary notwithstanding. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in
pursuance thereof; shall be interpreted as the organization of the natural
right of lawful defense. It is the substitution of a common force for
individual forces and this common force is to do only what the individual
forces have a natural and lawful right to do: to protect persons, liberties,
and properties.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States,
shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or
public trust under the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Slavery
shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Neither
the United States nor any state shall have the authority or power to deprive
any person of their right to life as punishment for any criminal act.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of citizens of the states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any state with the exception of those disenfranchised by
due procedural process for committing an infamous crime or due to their mental
incapacity. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people of the several states but no
rights shall be construed as being derived from the law or government or
compelling the actions of others.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo39; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">X.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Ratification<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
ratification by <span style="background: white;">a two-thirds
majority of each legislature of</span> the states shall be sufficient for the
establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Fifteen
years after the date of ratification of this Constitution, all laws in
existence before its ratification shall expire except revenue laws which shall
expire fifty years after ratification. In the thirty-five year interim, the Congress
shall eliminate all debts contracted and engagements entered into before the
adoption of this Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span> </p>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-48431641567771041672023-01-27T14:38:00.009-06:002024-02-05T13:29:43.549-06:00Why Monarchism<p> <b><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Economics:</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b> 1)</b> <a href="https://faculty.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Symbolic_Unity_Monarchies_Republics.pdf">“...we
found quantitatively meaningful evidence that
monarchies outperform republics when it comes
to protecting property rights, which translates
into higher GDP per capita. We found
support for each of our hypotheses when
comparing all monarchies to all republics.”</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>2)</b> "<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sjpe.12154" target="_blank">This paper explores the effects of monarchy on economic institutional quality and provides evidence that monarchies are associated with significantly better institutions.</a>"</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>3)</b> "<a href="https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-7092.2019.08.137" target="_blank">Albeit lack of significance, the ‘mean GDP’ isslightly higher for monarchy countries than in republic countries. Similarly,the variance statistic (a measure of instability) is lower for constitutionalmonarchies and higher for republics, indicating that constitutional monarchiesappear more economically stable than republic countries.</a>"</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b>4)</b> "<span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;"><a href="https://www.cato-unbound.org/2021/06/16/mauro-f-guillen/monarchy-economy/" target="_blank">It is thus fair to conclude that in the contemporary world, after centuries of framing the role of the sovereign in constitutional terms, and especially in the case of the European democratic-constitutional monarchies, people do better economically under monarchies than under republics, whether they are democratic or not.</a>"</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: medium;">Opinions: </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>1)</b> <b>Libertarian perspectives </b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>a)</b> "</span><a href="https://mises.org/library/libertarian-case-monarchy">Constitutional
monarchy cannot solve all problems of
government; nothing can. But it can help.
Besides lesser arguments, two main ones
recommend it. First, its very existence
is a reminder that democracy is not
the sort of thing of which more
is necessarily better; it can help promote
balanced thinking.</a><span> </span><a href="https://mises.org/library/libertarian-case-monarchy">Second, by
contributing continuity, diluting democracy while
supporting a healthy element of it, and
furthering the separation of government powers,
monarchy can help protect personal liberty.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>b)</b> "</span><a href="https://reason.com/2013/07/25/the-benefits-of-monarchy/">The idea
of monarchy is understandably abhorrent to
many Americans. But it's also true that
a constitutional monarchy can provide a
better check on political power than constitutional
democracy.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>c)</b> “<a href="https://mises.org/library/introduction-democracy-god-failed" target="_blank">I propose...a revision of the prevailing view of traditionalhereditary monarchies and provide...an uncharacteristically favorable interpretationof monarchy and the monarchical experience. In short, monarchical government is...privatelyowned government, which in turn is explained as promoting future-orientedness anda concern for capital values and economic calculation by the government. Democraticgovernment is...publicly owned government, which is explained as leading to present-orientednessand a disregard or neglect of capital values in government rulers, and the transitionfrom monarchy to democracy is interpreted accordingly as civilizational decline.If one must have a state...then it is economically and ethically advantageous tochoose monarchy over democracy.</a>" </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>2)</b> <b>Conservative perspectives </b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>a)</b> "</span><a href="https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2014/03/im-monarchist.html">Monarchy
is, most simply, the rule of law
and the spirit of a people incarnate.
It’s the avatar of a nation, the
vessel for its ancient spirit. Our Founders
decided to handle the spirit only, to
do away with the body and accept
what Hannan calls the most sublime form
of English common law. But it seems
this ideal is so sublime as to
be imperceptible: as soon as it appeared,
it was gone. So often we need that
intermediary, someone to devote himself entirely
to what we cannot do casually. Order,
law, liberty, dignity, beauty—the whole organism
of tradition—none of these are best served
by television debates and twelve hours
of voting once every couple of years.
They must have their constant minister.
Which is why, despite all time and
chance and popular opinion, I can’t help
but confess to being a convinced Monarchist.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>b)</b> "</span><a href="https://archive.theconservative.online/article/the-case-for-monarchy-and-against-meghan">However
outdated and irrelevant monarchy may appear
to many, it tends to instil in
the general public a healthy respect for
continuity. A head of state performs a
symbolic function, staying out of controversy
and speaking for the nation when it
seems necessary and proper. It may be
prudent to distinguish this role from
that of a battlescarred, elected leader
of government. Perhaps those who happen
to hold political power should not also
enjoy the historical glory. Unlike Rousseau
and the French Revolutionaries, Burke believed
that there should be many sources of
authority, not only one, and that monarchy
could be one of them. Indeed, some
of the freest and stablest regimes in
Europe are monarchies</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>c)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/are-you-a-monarchist">Most
people asked the title question to-day
would doubtless contemptuously answer “no!” Some
few – very few in these United
States – might answer in the affirmative.
But how well do either really understand
what they are denying or assenting to?</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><b> </b></o:p></span><span><b>d)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/4-reasons-to-become-a-monarchist">Four reasons to become a monarchist</a><span> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/4-reasons-to-become-a-monarchist"><b><span> 1</span>.</b> Monarchies are pro-people. Monarchies represent all<b>,</b> while politicians are necessarily partisan and divisive</a><b>.</b><span> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/4-reasons-to-become-a-monarchist"><b><span> </span>2.</b> Monarchical tyranny is more easily corrected</a><b>.</b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span><span> </span></span><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/4-reasons-to-become-a-monarchist"><b>3.</b> Monarchs are born to rule instead of merely happening to rule.</a><span> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><a href="https://www.tumblarhouse.com/blogs/news/4-reasons-to-become-a-monarchist"><b><span> </span>4.</b> For the Christian, Monarchy best represents the inherent hierarchy in the world</a><b>.</b>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>3)</b> <b>Religious perspectives</b></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>a)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.russianlegitimist.org/monarchy-and-orthodoxy">To be
a monarchist is not to pine away
for some lost paradisiacal past, because,
first, that past never existed; and second,
monarchy IS modern. The whole point of
the scholarship on monarchy is that it
has been everywhere and in all times.
That includes today. Nor should we dichotomize
monarchy and democracy. Democracy has always
been a part of monarchical systems on
some level.</a><span> </span><a href="https://www.russianlegitimist.org/monarchy-and-orthodoxy">Thus the
proper dichotomy is between monarchy and
republics. But all this means that we
should not be seduced into thinking that
our republic, any republic, can be anything
more than what it is (a pluralistic
and secular polity with no place for
God in the public sphere), or that
monarchy can be anything less than it
is (a sacral state that rests on
tsar, Church, and God).</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>b)</b> "</span><a href="https://kraljevinasrbija.rs/en/about-monarchy/why-monarchy/">We are
convinced that the re-establishment of constitutional
parliamentary monarchy would be the perfect
way to connect traditional, centuries-old values
of our people and its glorious past
with the modern era. Constitutional Monarchy
provides unity, stability and continuity. It
is also the guarantor of democracy and
human rights. The break-up with tradition
of monarchy had never had good effects
on a single nation, especially not ours.
The states that have incorporated their
own traditions in the modern era are
the most developed countries in the world
today, and 7 out of 10 are monarchies.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>c)</b> "</span><a href="https://onepeterfive.com/the-catholic-libertarian-monarchy/">Well,
firstly I am a Monarchist in my
bones. I love the traditions, the ceremony
and the kingliness of the whole affair.
In addition, you will find that it
is not uncommon for serious Libertarians
to advocate for Monarchy as the most
efficient and practical method of ensuring
a just state.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b>4)</b> <b>Other perspectives</b></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>a)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/420713?seq=1">...the
fervor for monarchy in the new democracies
is real. Cynics dismiss it as silly,
nostalgic romanticism, but could it instead
be an altogether rational manifestation of
the universal desire to live well and
be governed well? Although the royal road
has generally been bypassed in the twentieth
century, might it be the surest route
to societal well-being and good government
in the new millennium?</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>b)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.vox.com/2015/9/9/9294955/queen-elizabeth-constitutional-monarchy?fbclid=IwAR12ZZCKRC8DX0W1DmAoLhdr5POl8140nNLAKlyUgd0cldbE1B01BeWSYtA">But
the skeptics are wrong. Constitutional monarchy
is the best system of government known
to man, and it would be a terrible
shame [to] abandoned it.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><b> </b></o:p></span><span><b>c)</b> "</span><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2013/07/23/shut-up-royal-baby-haters-monarchy-is-awesome/">Constitutional
monarchy is the best form of government
that humanity has yet tried. It has
yielded rich, healthy nations whose regime
transitions are almost always due to elections
and whose heads of state are capable
of being truly apolitical.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span><b>d)</b> "</span><a href="https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/why-monarchies-are-still-relevant-and-useful-in-the-21st-century/">Monarchies
have an extremely valuable role to play,
even in the 21st century. If anything
their number should be added to rather
than subtracted from. To understand why,
it is important to consider the merits
of monarchy objectively without resorting to
the tautology that countries ought to
be democracies because they ought to be
democracies.</a>"</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></o:p></p>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-30686215448833405232022-11-21T21:59:00.002-06:002023-11-09T19:09:21.658-06:00The Problems with Presidentialism<p><span style="font-family: times;">In presenting both <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/07/">A New Constitution</a> and the <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/09/">Freedom Amendments</a>, it is suggested the form of government in the United States be altered from that of a presidentialist to a parliamentary form of government. While touching on some of the reasons, this paper seeks to explain the reasons in more depth.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Although the presidentialist formula only requires, by definition, the election for a fixed term of office of the head of government, Presidents also always serve as the head of state. In addition, the President is typically also the commander-in-chief and sometimes heads a leading party (or coalition of parties). These overlapping roles create vast expectations. The power vested in the office seems overwhelming, and regime stability appears to be assured. Since presidentialist regimes are vulnerable to collapse, however, this is an illusion. No doubt, so long as the regime persists, the fixed term of a President’s office assures more continuity of leadership despite possible cabinet reorganizations than can be found in a multi-party parliamentary system vulnerable to frequent cabinet crises. In practice, nevertheless, Presidents are severely hampered in their leadership roles, and their inability to fulfill popular expectations often leads to crises and regime breakdowns. These limitations may be viewed from several perspectives.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Fusion of Roles</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">As head of government every President has to make controversial policy decisions that unavoidably alienate substantial portions of the population. Even when a Government’s policies are widely supported, failures and injustices in their implementation are often blamed on the President. Yet Presidents, in their capacity as heads of -state,- are expected to symbolize and attract everyone’s loyalty, providing a common focus of patriotism for all citizens. Clearly, the requirements of the first role often clash with those of the second.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In parliamentary regimes, where loyalty to the head of state (“king” or “ceremonial president”) can easily be dissociated from support/opposition to the head of government (prime minister in cabinet), citizens can more easily sustain their patriotic loyalty to the State while opposing the policies of the Government. When the two roles are linked, however, citizens easily confuse their dissatisfaction with Government with disloyalty to the State. As a result, opposition to the current Administration may produce discontent with the Constitution and provide support for coups and revolutionary movements: opposition to Government easily becomes treason to the State; dissent becomes revolution. The absence of a separate head of state may also deprive the regime of an important moderating force to help conciliate opposing political movements or tendencies in times of emergency.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Fixed Term of Office</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The fixed term poses a double liability. In the case of effective Presidents it forces them out of office prematurely: one example may be that of Nobel prize winning President Oscar Arias Sanchez of Costa Rica–his four-year term expired in 1990 and he could not be reelected. The more usual cost, however, is that paid for an ineffectual President who, nevertheless, cannot be constitutionally discharged from office (except for criminal conduct as determined by impeachment). Ironically, one of the reasons for such ineffectiveness is precisely the fixed term: ambitious politicians, even in the President’s own party, often feel that they can best advance their own careers by distancing themselves from the President, building an independent (oppositional) base for future political campaigns, and establishing themselves as opponents of the current regime. This -lame duck- phenomenon occurs in the U.S. near the end of every President’s second term in office, but in many other countries we might even speak of a -dead duck- syndrome that afflicts new Presidents shortly after they assume office. In part this is due to constitutional barriers to any re-election of a President: in the American case, the possibility of at least one re- election (two or more until the enactment of Amendment 22 in 1951) enables a President to postpone the lame duck syndrome.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A lame-duck President is not only gravely handicapped, but the growth of political opposition and popular discontent may well bolster the ambitions of a military cabal conspiring to seize power. A <em style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">coup d’etat</em> is the functional equivalent, under presidentialism, of a removal effort that, in parliamentary regimes, can be achieved by a no-confidence vote. Since coups involve suspending the constitution, Congress is also dissolved, whether or not its resistance contributed to the failures of the Presidency.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Veto Groups vs Opposition</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A President’s role as head of government is also severely limited by the pervasiveness of -veto groups- such as the legislature, the courts, and the bureaucracy, plus a fractionalized party system. Although these diverse bodies can block executive action, they cannot formulate the coherent alternatives that the political opposition can often produce in parliamentary regimes. Such an opposition may also compel Government to modify policies in a consociational direction (Lijphart 1989, 8), something that presidential veto groups normally fail to do. The possibility that an opposition can replace them means that cabinets must take their views seriously, whereas Presidents are tempted to view their opponents merely as hostile forces to be subdued.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Mainwaring tells us that in the Latin American presidentialist democracies, Presidents have often been able to initiate policies but unable to win support for their implementation (1989, 162). Thus veto groups can block action but they are powerless to bring alternative (opposition) parties to power. Since all Presidents, despite growing opposition and political impotence, must cling to office until they meet their scheduled deadlines, a kind of self-induced nemesis drives them into the dead end of their “lame duck” terms.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The “Winner-take-all” Syndrome. </span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In parliamentary systems, the election of a ceremonial president means relatively little, while the election of party members to Parliament means a great deal–especially to party supporters. Even small parties may “win” to the degree that some of their candidates become Members of Parliament and may even join the Government.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">By contrast, in presidentialist systems the electoral stakes are much higher and more concentrated because so much hinges on the selection of a governing President–often, indeed, it is more of a personal than a partisan victory. Presidentialism, writes Juan Linz, “is ineluctably problematic because it operates according to the rule of ‘winner-take-all’–an arrangement that tends to make democratic politics a zero-sum game, with all the potential for conflict such games portend” (1990, 56). There are many losers under presidentialism. Not only defeated parties but even members of a winning party–especially rival candidates for nomination–may feel that they have lost everything when a President is elected, leading to great discontent, alienation and the “dead duck” syndrome, as noted above.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">To the degree that patronage prevails–and it is pervasive in all presidentialist regimes–a host of public officials may feel that their continuation in office depends on victory for the ruling party, and private interests supported by the Government also have a large stake in its survival. Consequently, a Presidential victory is a triumph for supporters of the winning candidate and a great loss for opponents (Linz 1990, 56). Understandably, their frustrations easily translate into popular resistance to the Regime rather than loyal opposition to the Government.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In pathological cases, the stakes seem so high that Presidents resort to unconstitutional means to maintain their power, including corruption, violence, and sponsoring proteges (relatives and cronies) so as to perpetuate a “family” dynasty, or even to compel constitutional changes that permit their own reelection. Corruption and violence at the polls often occur as a likely consequence of the high stakes winner-take-all contest.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Such contentiousness may be amplified by the electoral rules. In Peru, for example, until 1979, a President could be elected by a one-third plurality, and Congress could name the President when no candidate won a third of the votes. In Peru’s 1962 election, the leftist (APRA) party’s leader, Haya de la Torre, “beat Balaunde [of the centrist Accion Popular party] by less than one percentage point, 32.9% to 32.l%, with Odria third at 28%.” Since this threw the final choice to Congress, Haya sought first to make an alliance with Balaunde who rejected him, calling instead for new elections (APRA had been charged with electoral irregularities). Haya then turned to his arch rival, Odria, of the right wing PPC. “The specter of a government led by the presidential candidate who had finished third, in an ideologically disparate coalition between two parties that had been enemies for decades, may have been the last straw for the military. The coup came within two days” (McClintock 1989, 28-9). Thus the high-stakes winner-take-all game may even lead the losers to support the desperate expedient of a military coup.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A Fragile Political/Administrative Base. </span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The institutional foundations of a President’s rule are inherently fragile. We may analyze this problem separately at the political (partisan) and the administrative (bureaucratic) levels, although in fact the two are closely interlocked.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">At the political level, the contrast with parliamentary systems is instructive. The dependence of cabinets on parliamentary support means both that party discipline is necessary and that a government without parliamentary support must resign. The resulting fusion of powers often enables parliamentary governments to act decisively. By contrast, no such interdependence occurs under the presidentialist separation of powers where a persistent stalemate can block executive action.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ideally, perhaps, a President’s authority ought to rest on a party system that mobilizes voters to support candidates for election to public offices so that a winning party can ensure Congressional support for Presidential policies. In fact, however, this rarely occurs. Presidentialist party systems vary widely in their capacity to mobilize political support for a President. Some are highly disciplined and others extremely loose, two equally dysfunctional extremes. Disciplined parties, as found in Chile, have prevented the President from getting necessary</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Congressional support whenever he lacked a majority. Alternatively, as in Brazil, where party members freely vote their personal preferences, Presidents have responded by flagrantly overriding or flouting the parties that had formally supported their candidacy (Mainwaring, 1990b, 21). Even in the United States, as at present, the majority party in Congress need not be the President’s party, setting the stage for persistent conflict and deadlocks.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In multi-party systems, the President is likely to win only a plurality of popular votes, even though a technical majority may be formed in second round run-off elections or Congressional voting. Such majorities are ad hoc coalitions that soon fall apart, denying the President genuine legislative support for his/her policies: according to Mainwaring, “The combination of presidentialism and a fractionalized multiparty system is especially unfavorable to democracy. (Mainwaring 1990b, 25). See also (Valenzuela 1989, 33).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Even when, in a two-party system, the President’s party has a Congressional majority, the fact that the President cannot be discharged by a majority vote of no confidence may mean that members of the President’s party have little to lose by not supporting a Government bill they do not like. Moreover, party factionalism can also mean that many members of the ruling party consistently vote against the chief executive’s policies and leadership. No doubt, when party discipline is strong, as it has been in Argentina, a Congressional majority will assure support for Presidential policies. Nevertheless, even though the separation of powers may serve its original purpose of preventing arbitrary government, it often fails to provide the political support Presidents require in order to govern effectively.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The inability of Presidents to implement policy is compounded at the administrative level, as illustrated pointedly by the precarious dynamics of “cabinet” formation. A President needs the help of a highly qualified top echelon of department heads and bureaucrats who can administer public policies effectively and also secure Congressional and legal support for Administration policies. However, Presidents jeopardize the separation of powers if they rely either on members of Congress or on career officials to head their departments and form a cabinet. Accordingly, they seek to enhance Congressional support by naming party activists from outside Congress, or they recruit personal followers (even relatives) from the private sector to fill these posts, and to staff the Presidential apparatus, by-passing both elected politicians and experienced public administrators. Consequently, a highly personal style, inter-departmental conflicts and lack of institutionalization at the top levels of Presidential administration typically hampers the processes of governance in presidentialist regimes. <a name="cha" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Legislative/Executive Chasm</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Consider the case of Ecuador, which has experienced frequent regime breakdowns, but has restored democratic procedures since 1979. Nevertheless, acute tensions between President and Congress persist, according to Catherine Conaghan, who tells us that shortly after the elections of 1984, “Congressional activity came to a stand still after sessions were marred by tear-gas bombings, fisticuffs on the floor of the assembly, and walk-outs by legislators on both sides. Meanwhile, [President] Febres Cordero had decided to physically bar the new appointees [named by Congress to the Supreme Court] from using their offices and banned the publication of the appointments…” (Conaghan 1989, 20). In 1987, the President was kidnaped by Air Force paratroopers who released him only after he had agreed to confirm the amnesty granted by Congress to two leading opponents of the administration (23-4).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">“From 1979 through 1988, Ecuador staggered through a succession of executive-legislative confrontations that created a near permanent crisis atmosphere in the polity” (Conaghan 1989, 25). “Even when Presidents enjoyed a pro-government majority in Congress, the majority could easily erode under the pressures of interest groups and electoral calculations. Congressional opposition was a standard feature in the interruption of Presidential terms with interest groups and the armed forces joining in the fray” (Ibid., 8).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">When a President is “…incapable of pursuing a coherent course of action because of congressional opposition… in many cases, a coup appears to be the only means of getting rid of an incompetent or unpopular president..” (Mainwaring 1989, 165). A similar argument can be found in Linz (1990, 53). Stalemate is even more unavoidable when–as noted above–the President’s party has only a minority in the Congress.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">To overcome such impasses, Presidents frequently strive to dominate the assembly, a tendency that, in effect, vitiates the principle of separation of powers, leading to quasi-presidentialism and the erosion (or destruction) of presidentialist legitimacy. Embattled Presidents are often tempted to resort to desperate and even unconstitutional measures in order to bypass Congress and achieve their goals (Mainwaring 1989, 168-9). Sometimes, as in the Philippines in 1972, the President suspends Congress and rules by martial law and executive orders.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">More often, as in Brazil, according to Mainwaring, all its democratic Presidents sought “…to bypass Congress by implementing policy through executive agencies and decree-laws… the practice of creating new agencies and circumventing congress for major programs…” has grave costs (1990b, 15). “When Quadros and Goulart were frustrated with Congress…they appealed to popular mobilization–with disastrous results in both cases… This strategy was catastrophic, as it further alienated major institutional actors, including the armed forces…” (1990b, 16).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Military interventions are not often explicitly due to an overt impasse between the President and Congress, but rather are attributed to habitual executive abuse or misuse of power provoked by a long-festering history of such conflict. The absence of a coherent opposition that could replace the Government–as noted above–often tempts a President to persist in unwise projects that undermine popular support. No cabinet officer or legislator is powerful enough to compel the President to make serious policy revisions. The frequent replacement of cabinet members not only reflects Presidential weakness but, reciprocally, generates sycophantism and intimidates those who might be able to correct a misguided President.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Since impeachment cannot replace the Government by an opposition party, even fierce opponents may oppose a procedure that will merely replace the President with an even more objectionable vice president. Consequently, the fixed electoral cycle of presidentialism creates structural rigidities that are readily overcome in the alternative parliamentary model by the threat of a cabinet crisis and/or new elections whenever the current leadership is seriously discredited. Is it, therefore, surprising that in such an environment a cabal of officials, mainly military officers, should seize power and overthrow the presidentialist regime?</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Congressional Problematique</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Since the presidentialist formula requires that members of Congress as well as the President be elected for a fixed term of office, it is apparent that every effective Congress will have to cope with a vast and inherently unmanageable agenda. By contrast, in any Parliament, members mainly need only to agree or disagree with Government policies. Even members of a Government party who disagree with its policies will usually support them in order to avoid the likelihood of a new election in which they might lose their seats.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In all contemporary polities the number of complex issues calling for attention is so vast and controversial that it is really impossible for any body of legislators to study and reach collective agreements on all of them. The danger, then, is that an overloaded Congress will fail to act or find itself deadlocked in major controversies. If it is too compliant with Presidential policy demands, it becomes a mere rubber stamp, or it may simply refuse to consider many of the issues that might have been placed on its agenda. If, however, it habitually rejects Government proposals, or offers alternatives that the President will only veto, it can bring the processes of governance to a halt.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Moreover, members of Congress face competing demands that must be terribly frustrating. They are pressured by clients seeking patronage appointments, by local constituencies seeking funds for “pork barrel” projects, and they must mobilize support for re-election campaigns. Essentially, every Congress is placed in a kind of “no-win” situation from which it vainly struggles to extricate itself. Ultimately, it must share with the President a heavy burden of criticism that, all too often, generates military intervention and the breakdown of the regime. <a name="par" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The Party System</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Since a presidentialist regime is, by definition, a form of representative government, it needs to have an open party system: i.e., it needs electoral competition between two or more effective parties. I believe this is true because the maintenance of genuine legislative power is impossible whenever one party regularly dominates the elected assembly. A one-party system (as in Communist regimes) leads to complete party control of the elected assembly. Even a hegemonic party, in a polity that permits genuine opposition parties, nearly suffocates the Congress. Mexico provides a classic case. There, all the advantages resulting from electoral success belong repeatedly to the PRI and the Congress becomes a pliant legitimizing instrument. The separation of powers required, by definition, in a presidentialist regime is, therefore, incompatible with hegemonic or one-party rule–what I shall refer to as a closed party system. By definition, opposition parties may be permitted to run candidates in free elections, but if they have no real chance of winning power, then the party system is really “closed.”</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">An open party system, by contrast, is one in which two or more parties have real possibilities of winning power. We cannot use multi-party for this concept because a two-party system is also “open.” No doubt the distinction between two and multi-party systems is significant–as is the distinction between single and hegemonic party systems. However, I see them as sub-types of a more fundamental distinction, i.e., between open and closed party systems. Moreover, among open party systems there is a more fundamental difference based on the dynamics of inter-party competition that we need to consider here. <a name="fug" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dynamics of Centrifugalism</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Among open party systems, the most fundamental distinction, I believe, involves the degree to which power is centrifugalized (polarizing) or centripetalized (centering). In the context of this distinction, we can better understand the two- party/multi-party contrast. <a href="http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/pres.htm#6" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><sup style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(6)</sup></span></a> I believe that the survival of presidentialism is promoted by an open centripetal party system and undermined by one that is centrifugal or closed.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Centripetal forces arise when different parties compete mainly for center votes, i.e., the support of regular, mainstream voters who think of themselves as “independents,” willing to support candidates of any party or even to split their tickets, as current interests, policy issues or political personalities suggest. By contrast, centrifugal forces prevail when more extreme positions are taken by parties seeking to attract the support of non-voters. This typically involves proposing dramatic, populist, costly and controversial policies likely to win the support of apathetic or alienated citizens who normally cannot or will not vote. Unfortunately, most presidentialist regimes have developed centrifugal party systems, thereby creating self- destructive spirals based on circular causation.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Multiparty Systems</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A voting system that rewards small parties offers strong incentives for marginal groups to become organized and present extremist platforms that can mobilize special interest groups of many kinds, be they street sleepers, religious sects, or ethnic communities or social classes. Such pressures produce multi-party systems that undoubtedly create grave problems for parliamentary systems but they need not destroy them. No doubt each party represented in a coalition cabinet can exercise a veto power by threatening to withdraw, but it also needs the support of other coalition members to achieve any of its goals, often leading even extremists to support consociational accommodations.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">By contrast, a centrifugal multi-party system surely undermines any presidentialist regime because its polarized parties lack pressure points vis a vis a fixed-term head of government. Although presidential candidates may temporarily seek the support of extremist parties, as when forming pre-election coalitions, the withdrawal of partisan support will have little influence on Presidents in office. Small parties lack bargaining power and Presidents have no built-in structures to counteract the polarizing tendencies of a centrifugal party system. Indeed, any President who seeks to meet the demands of extremists in Congress soon antagonizes the main-line parties and loses the support needed for policies of more general interest.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Multi-party systems usually lead to minority governments, in two senses. First, a plurality government is one in which a President has won office with a plurality vote, but no absolute majority of the popular vote and, second, a divided government is one where the President continuously faces an antagonistic majority in Congress (where the same party prevails in both branches we may speak of party government). Minority government in both senses is almost unavoidable because of the centrifugal dynamics inherent in multi-party systems : plurality Presidents lack the popular mandate needed to lead effectively, and minority governments cannot gain Congressional support for their policies.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In most of Latin America, sad to say, multi-party systems prevail. Among them, the most successful was probably Chile, “… the only case in the world of a multiparty presidential[ist] democracy that endured for 25 or more consecutive years” (Mainwaring 1989, 168). In Chile, Congress was called upon to make the final choice of a President but, in this situation, a temporary coalition of highly disciplined parties, formed to support the winning candidate, usually soon fell apart (Valenzuela 1989, 32). Thus, “…there was an inadequate fit between the country’s highly polarized and competitive party system, which was incapable of generating majorities, and a presidential[ist] system of centralized authority… As minority Presidents…Chilean chief executives enjoyed weak legislative support or outright congressional opposition. And since they could not seek reelection, there was little incentive for parties, including the President’s own, to support him beyond mid-term” (Valenzuela 1988, 33-4). The resulting sense of “permanent crisis” culminated in 1974 in the Pinochet coup and dictatorship.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A different kind of multi-party presidentialism is found in Brazil where “…Presidents could not even count on the support of their own parties, much less that of the other parties that had helped elect them. Brazilian parties in the two democratic periods have been notoriously undisciplined and incapable of providing consistent block support for presidents” (Mainwaring 1990b, 5). They have tried to cope with the deadlock of congressional opposition based on an extremely fragmented and fluid party system by developing an “anti-party discourse” and have “engaged in anti-party actions.” Often they were “recruited from outside or above party channels…” They usually avoided strong links with any party in order to enhance their political appeal to a broad range of public opinion (Mainwaring 1990b, 9-10).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Whether the individual parties are disciplined or not is certainly important, but I believe that a more important consideration is the centrifugal dynamism of all multi-party systems. Although these dynamics may even invigorate parliamentary systems, they ultimately destroy presidentialist regimes, producing both plurality and divided governments.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Two-Party Systems</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">It is widely thought that two-party systems are generated by presidentialism and conducive to their survival. Actually, multi-partyism is more common in presidentialist regimes, and two-partyism by no means assures their survival. According to Mainwaring, “Two party systems are the exception rather than the rule in Latin America, but among the region’s more enduring democracies, they are the rule rather than the exception”– including Colombia, Costa Rica, Uruguay and Venezuela (Mainwaring 1990b, 25).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">However, a two-party system is not necessarily a permanent feature of any presidentialist regime, and by no means assures its survival. Since the 1984 election, Uruguay may no longer be classed as a “two-party system” and Venezuela has been a two-party system only during the last 20 years or so. In Asia, two-partyism prevailed in the Philippines from 1946 to 1972, after which President Ferdinand Marcos imposed martial law, suspended Congress, and created his closed system dominated by the New Society Movement (KBL) (De Guzman and Reforma 1988, 87-95). Actually, it is very difficult to maintain a viable two-party system: it may evolve into a multi-party or hegemonic party system.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Ideally, a two-party system will enable Presidents to secure a majority vote and a popular mandate to rule, with the support of a party majority in Congress. This premise is based on the familiar parliamentary model and fails to appreciate the basic fact that, because of the fixed term, presidentialist regimes lack the basic motor of parliamentarism that promotes party discipline. Even when the President’s party has a Congressional majority, there is no way to guarantee support for the President’s program.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">To understand the acknowledged linkage between two-partyism and presidentialism we must first recognize that a two-party system may be centrifugal or centripetal: overcoming executive/ legislative conflicts is much easier with a centripetal two-party system than it is when that system is centrifugalized. To visualize the dynamics of a centrifugal two-party system, consider the situation in Uruguay, often mentioned as a leading example of successful two-party democracy. There, the Colorado party actually held power from 1865-1973–except for a brief interim (1958-62) of control by the opposition Blanco party–suggesting a de facto hegemonic party situation. A military group seized power in 1973, and democracy was not restored until 1985.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Centrifugalization in this “two-party system” was driven by party factionalization and high voter turnouts, leading to deep cleavages between the President and Congress (Gillespie 1989, 15; Gonzalez 1989, 14). The main explanation can be found in Uruguay’s exceptional scheme of proportional representation that permits party factions to present separate lists. This system, known as the “Double Simultaneous Vote,” has produced highly contentious intra-party factions (Gillespie 1989, 15). Even though each list goes under the label of a major party, the candidates on each faction’s list compete with each other just as they would in a multi-party system, and they also provoke wide-spread electoral participation. Consequently, Presidents typically face strong resistance within their own party–in addition to the opposition party.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Thus, when Oscar Diego Gestido was elected in 1967, his faction controlled only a fraction of the Colorado deputies. The resulting standoff, complicated by some quasi-parliamentary features of the constitution, resulted in no “…real control over the Executive but a permanent hindrance of its functioning which ironically increases the tendency toward coups.” In 1973 a military group seized power and dissolved Congress, although Juan Maria Bordaberry was allowed to remain as nominal “President” (Gillespie 1989, 15-17; Gonzalez 1989, 7-8).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A similar rule permits party factions to run separate electoral lists in Colombia and helps to explain the complexity of this country’s highly factionalized and centrifugal “two-party” system. “Factionalization forced each President to create and recreate an effective governing coalition within Congress, making the National Front period resemble a multi-party system” (Hartlyn 1989, 16). Although leading factions of the two main parties supported the Government, other factions of each party went into opposition. Immobilism and deadlock resulted. For further details see Hartlyn (1989, 15-20).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Since multi-party systems are necessarily centrifugal, only a two-party system is compatible, in the long run, with presidentialism. However, this is possible only if the system is centripetal, and as Uruguay and Colombia demonstrate, two-party systems may be highly centrifugal. We will clarify the problem, therefore, if we say that a centripetal open party system is needed. If, as I have argued, multi-party systems are necessarily centrifugal, this means that it must be a two-party system, but having only two parties is not sufficient. <a name="ele" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Electoral Foundations</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">When our focus is on the centripetal/centrifugal distinction among open party systems, we can easily see that the electoral system provides the most important explanation. In general, a wide variety of multi-member-district proportional representation– i.e., PR–systems produce centrifugalized party configurations (normally, but not always, with more than two parties). The attempt to secure a popular majority for the President by means of a second-round run-off election cannot nullify the effects of PR in the first round. Moreover, when congressional elections coincide with the first round balloting for President, as may often be the case, it becomes most “unlikely that a President will enjoy a clear-cut majority in Congress.” This proved to be the case in Ecuador where many parties have proliferated (Conaghan 1989, 12-3).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The rhetoric of two- and multi-party systems lulls us into our preoccupation with the number of parties in a polity and distracts attention from an equally necessary factor, i.e., the internal distribution of power in a party. I believe the survival of presidentialism is as much affected by party-structure as it is by party-system. Yet we cannot easily discuss this dimension because our vocabulary is inadequate. We tend to make a simplified dichotomy between “disciplined” par ties, such as we normally find in parliamentary systems, and the “catch-all” parties found in the United States and, for example, in Brazil. We may also assume that PR leads to disciplined parties and SMD voting to loose parties–generalizing from U.S./European comparisons.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The comparative study of presidentialist regimes will show us, however, that such notions conceal a far more complicated reality in which, assuredly, electoral systems play a role, in combination with regime type. I believe we need to distinguish between at least three dimensions of power distribution found in all political parties: geographic, functional, and relational. We can use centralized/localized to talk about the geographic dimension; concentrated/dispersed for the functional dimension; and integrated/isolated to discuss relations between political parties and other social organizations based on religion, ethnicity, class, occupation, etc. Here I shall focus on the first two, leaving the third for later comment.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">I shall use centered to characterize a political party where power is both centralized and concentrated; and fluid for a pattern in which power is both localized and dispersed. Discipline is properly used for the willingness of all legislators belonging to a given party to vote as instructed by their leaders. Clearly the more centered a party, the greater the likelihood that its parliamentary members will be disciplined. By contrast, members of a fluid party are likely to be undisciplined, often refusing to follow their party’s line. We need to retain this distinction between the internal power structure of a party and the voting behavior of its members in an elected assembly.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A party in which power is both centralized and dispersed is factionalized, as illustrated by the Uruguayan and Colombian parties. This pattern is produced, I believe, by an unusual form of PR (the “double simultaneous vote”) that produces a centrifugalized two-party system. Legislative voting will be disciplined (within the factions) and undisciplined (in an all-party sense). A neologism may be required to talk clearly about such cases: we might speak of dia- discipline in the case of factionalized parties.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Party power may be both localized and concentrated in the form of urban machines, such as Tammany Hall and many other political clubs typical of an earlier period in U.S. history. Rather awkwardly, we might speak of such a party as machined or machinist, but I use these words here only to illustrate our need for better terms. Legislative voting in such parties might also be dia-disciplined, but with members following orders from local machine bosses rather than from national faction leaders.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">More importantly, however, we need to see that normally PR in a presidentialist regime produces a multi-party system in which the power distribution in individual parties can vary between centered and fluid. Fluid parties are found in Brazil, producing a chaotic Congressional arena where Presidents have to bargain with many individualistic members in order to secure clientelistic support for their policies, often by means of patronage and local (pork barrel) projects. “The extremely loose nature of Brazilian parties has added to the problems caused by the permanent minority situation of Presidents’ parties. Presidents could not even count on the support of their own parties, much less that of the other parties that had helped elect them” (Mainwaring 1990b, 5).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Similarly, in Ecuador, “…politicians of every stripe appear to be afflicted with a significant amount of distaste and disdain for the party system in which they operate.” “Rather than using presidential resources to build up his own party, Febres Cordero [as other Presidents had done] preferred to by-pass parties altogether and create a clientelist network…” (Conaghan 1989, 30) Thus, the efforts of Presidents and other politicians to undermine party solidarity often stimulates, by circular causation, the disruptive effects of fluid parties on legislative performance and the growing frustrations of the chief executive. Conaghan remarks that “What is striking in Ecuadorean political culture and style is the extent to which it has been permeated by an anti-party mentality…” (29). Alternatively, as I propose, one might see the extreme fluidity (localization and dispersal) of such parties as a normal feature of presidentialist regimes that use PR electoral systems.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">It is equally normal, however, for such systems to produce highly centered parties, and they are equally dysfunctional for the maintenance of presidentialist regimes. The best example can be found in Chile where well disciplined (ideological) parties often combine to produce a solid opposition front whenever a President cannot sustain the majority coalition in Congress that brought him to power (Valenzuela 1989, 32-3).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In parliamentary systems, of course, PR also leads to centered parties–the dynamics of parliamentarism simply renders a fluid party non-viable. Moreover, centered parties are functional for the maintenance of parliamentary accountability because they produce discipline. Of course, reciprocally, the need for discipline has a feed-back effect which encourages electoral rules that generate centered parties. In presidentialist systems, by contrast, PR can produce parties that are fluid, centered, or factionalized: always in a centrifugalized party system and always dysfunctional for the maintenance of presidentialism. Moreover, neither President nor Congress seems to have any systemic means to counteract these party dynamisms.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Fortunately, between the polar extremes identified above some intermediate intra-party power distributions are also possible. Here our vocabulary is, again, quite inadequate. Provisionally, I shall use responsive to characterize an intra-party distribution of power that combines local autonomy with headquarters guidance, and permits intra-party groups to organize informally but not to become oppressively prominent. On the two basic power dimensions, responsiveness falls between centered and localized, and between concentrated and dispersed. In the section, <a href="http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/pres.htm#eni" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Predictable Enigma,</span></a> I argue that the survival of presidentialism in the United States hinges, among various factors, on the responsiveness of its political parties and the semi-disciplined voting patterns that this engenders. The causes are no doubt complex, but they surely include reliance on a single-member-district (SMD) plurality system for the election of legislators, plus the freedom to abstain from voting and a variety of other factors that will be explained below, under <a href="http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/pres.htm#cen" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Centripetal </span></a>Party System.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Bureaucratic Dilemmas</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The urgent need of any chief executive to be surrounded by competent and loyal officials capable of managing and coordinating the administration of government directs attention to a major problem that is easily overlooked by analysts predisposed to focus on the “political” aspects of governance at the expense of its “administrative” dimensions. Yet failure to administer well has dire political consequences. Public confidence declines and discontents soar, producing the kinds of unrest that lead, so often, to revolutionary movements and coups.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Moreover, many activities that are nominally administrative in character actually have strong political implications–for example, appointments to public office and administrative reorganizations, including the establishment of new agencies, can vitally affect a President’s power position, and influence the disposition of members of Congress to support or oppose a President’s policies. Perhaps, above all, bureaucratic power often expands to such a degree that public (especially military) officials become major actors in the political arena–sometimes even seizing power by a coup d’etat. Because the political implications of bureaucratic dilemmas are so often misunderstood, we need to take a closer look at these problems as they occur in presidentialist regimes.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Power of Modern Bureaucracy</span>.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The main instrument for administering any modern government is typically a bureaucracy whose members–military as well as civil–depend largely on their salaries to support themselves and their dependents. This feature of modern bureaucracy contrasts with the situation found in traditional bureaucracies where modest official stipends were normally supplemented by various kinds of legal but non-official income (Riggs 1991, 2-6). <a href="http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/pres.htm#7" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><sup style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(7)</sup></span></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">The significance of this fact becomes apparent when we remind ourselves that officials, like all other people, have their own interests to defend. However, their control over public offices and resources gives them weapons of power (especially in the armed forces) not available to most citizens. Unless their incomes are secure and their conduct is well monitored, guided and supervised by constitutional organs and popular forces, bureaucrats are easily able to exploit public office for personal advantage, as by widespread corruption and sinecurism. When they really feel threatened, they can also, under military leadership, seize power by a coup d’etat.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Need for Patronage</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"> The public interest in contemporary societies requires that many bureaucrats, especially those in leadership and technocratic positions, be experienced and highly qualified to perform difficult tasks. The necessary qualifications are best assured by the establishment of a “merit” system designed to recruit well trained persons whose continuing (tenured) experience in government service enables them to perform effectively.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In parliamentary democracies–and even under single-party domination and in traditional monarchies–the development of experienced cadres of public officials is usually possible, and ruling elites or cabinets are able to rely, for the most part, on career bureaucrats to staff and implement their politically-driven policies in ways that are essentially technocratic and professional.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">By contrast, in presidentialist regimes, the structurally precarious position of Presidents–for reasons discussed above–would be seriously jeopardized were they to depend on career officials to staff the highest bureaucratic offices, including cabinet positions. Moreover, Presidents cannot recruit sitting members of Congress to serve as cabinet members without endangering the autonomy and power of the executive office, nor is it possible for non-elective cabinet members to hold seats in the assembly without jeopardizing the balance of power. In this necessarily precarious position, Presidents have no option but to recruit a large number of leading officials, starting at the cabinet level, from outside the government service: they cannot be either career officials or elected politicians.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Consequently, heavy reliance on patronage appointments (clientelism, cronyism and spoils) is a prevalent and necessary feature of all presidentialist systems. It entails fateful political and administrative costs. The most apparent is a lack of experience, qualifications, and dependability–Presidents must, on very short notice, try to assemble a “team” of personal supporters to manage the Government and direct a host of subordinates whose interests and obligations often conflict with those of the President.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Members of Congress also have a compelling interest in patronage. They typically seek posts for their supporters (clients) in order to maintain the political support without which they could not be elected. This gives them a powerful incentive and basis for bargaining with a beleaguered President: they can trade votes for favors. This is no trivial matter since their own power base may be seriously undermined if they cannot secure appointments for their proteges. Consequently, the indispensable minimum of political appointees needed to staff a presidentialist regime’s top posts is vastly inflated because both the President and the Congress need patronage to maintain the system.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Presidents typically need patronage to gain legislative support for their policies. Hartlyn reports that in Colombia a “…President had massive appointive powers, whose significance was augmented by the importance of spoils and patronage to the clientelist and brokerage oriented parties and by the absence of any meaningful civil service legislation. Presidents could appoint cabinet ministers without congressional approval” (1989, 13). The effect of the growing power of the President was “…to marginalize Congress further from major decisions, reducing its functions to ones of patronage, brokerage and management of limited pork barrel funds” (21).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Mainwaring reports that, in Brazil, “The only glue (and it is a powerful one at times) that holds the President’s support together is patronage–and this helps explain the pervasive use of patronage politics” (1990b, 7). “Both Vargas and Kubitschek pressed for reforms that would strengthen the merit system and protect state agencies from clientelistic pressures, but they were defeated by a Congress unwilling to relinquish patronage privileges” (6).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Here we find a classic double bind: the President needs patronage to secure congressional support and members of Congress cannot abandon clientelism without undermining their own political support base. Only a judicious use of patronage can sustain the separation of power needed for presidentialism to survive. Thus, although both President and Congress need a non- partisan career system in the bureaucracy in order to implement their policies effectively,</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">neither can afford to embrace a merit system without undermining their own precarious power base and threatening the presidentialist balance of power. <a name="ten" style="border: 0px; color: #26abd3; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; transition-duration: 0.2s; transition-timing-function: ease; vertical-align: baseline;"></a></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Tenacity of Retainers</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In every polity bureaucratic self-interest produces additional problems that involve officials in office. Most conspicuously, in presidentialist regimes, this concerns the retention/rotation dilemma. In all non-presidentialist regimes, as noted above, almost all appointed officials are recruited and retained on a career basis. In presidentialist systems, by contrast, powerful forces lead to patronage appointments under a succession of elected officials, including both the President and members of Congress. What happens to these appointees when new elections bring new personalities and political parties into power? Will they be able to keep their jobs, or will they be discharged?</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">It is much easier to hire than to fire, and those in office fight to keep their jobs: no doubt they are more interested and powerful than are candidates seeking new posts. We need to recognize a large class of political appointees who are able to retain their positions–I refer to them as retainers. Although they remain in office, they are often down-graded and humiliated (siberianized) when new political appointees replace them in higher office. Only their dependence on salaries and their eagerness to protect their personal security and fringe benefits lead them to put up with many humiliations. Predictably, however, demoralized and underpaid officials do unsatisfactory work and lower the quality of public administration.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Moreover, because bureaucratic retainers work on a salary basis and depend on government for their income and security, they will often (when their livelihood is threatened) support a coup. Its military leaders are not only enraged by the policy failures of a regime but they want to safeguard the interests of all public employees, not just themselves. In all bureaucratic revolts, military officers play the dominant role because they control the means of violence, but they need the support of civil servants in order to run the government successfully. This is why I use bureaucratic polity for the resultant dictatorships, rather than the superficial term, “military authoritarianism.”</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Merit-based careerism will surely help any regime cope with the serious crises that might lead to a coup simply by improving the quality of public administration. However, it is extremely difficult to establish such a system, not only because of short-term Presidential and Congressional resistance, but also because retainers see it as a threat that must be fiercely resisted. In order to pave the way for careerists to replace retainers, rotation in office must first be accepted. A government must be able to discharge incumbents in order to create the vacancies that a new class of careerists can fill. Yet attempts by any presidentialist regime to enforce a rotation policy generate fierce resistance and usually compel Governments to compromise with incumbents rather than risk the serious costs of mass lay-offs, including a possible coup d’etat.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A costly alternative to rotationism was developed in Chile where civil servants could retire “…with fifteen years service and a relatively good pension. Agency heads, however, would retire with what was known as <em style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">la perseguidora</em>–a pension that kept pace with the salary of the current occupant of the post retired from…. Agency heads were thus appointed as a culmination of their careers and could be persuaded to retire to allow a new President to make new appointments” (Valenzuela 1984, 262). Another common bureaucratic practice in Chile deprived officials of significant functions while respecting their job security: “The <em style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">haustoria</em> (or common grave), a series of offices for individuals with no official responsibilities… became a feature of many agencies” (ibid., 264). Moreover, “…new agencies…that could carry forth new program initiatives of the new administration were brought into existence without having to abolish older ones. Even the conservative and austerity-minded Jorge Alessandri added 35,000 new employees to the public sector during his tenure in office” (ibid., 263). This practice enables a President to make patronage appointments without discharging incumbent officials.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In Brazil, similarly, Presidents often expanded the apparatus of government by creating new state agencies in order to enhance their power and overcome Congressional resistance (Mainwaring l989, 169). By such means, some of the short-term political benefits of rotationism have been achieved, but only at immense cost. Most importantly, by thwarting the establishment of merit-based career systems, they have perpetuated a deep flaw that helps us explain the collapse of most presidentialist regimes.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">* * *</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Structural Poly-normativism</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">A second fundamental problem for all presidentialist bureaucracies involves the need of bureaucrats to be responsive concurrently to the separate authority of the President, Congress and the Courts. This results, as David Rosenbloom has pointed out, in three sets of criteria governing bureaucratic performance that frequently clash with each other, generating bureaucratic poly-normativism. Presidential authority can lead to emphasis on the managerial values of efficiency and effectiveness; Congressional demands may generate insistence on political responsibility and responsiveness; and Judicial decisions often give priority to standards of legality and the protection of citizens’ rights versus bureaucratic abuse of power (Rosenbloom 1983). A fourth criterion, suggested by the discussion of patronage, involves partisan pressures. Indeed, it may be true that in all political systems partisanship can play an important role in public bureaucracies. This is especially true of presidentialist regimes, however, where it has disastrous consequences.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Even where a “non-partisan” merit system has been established, as it was in the Philippines because of American influence, career officials are often openly partisan. Carino reports that “…a third of middle-level bureaucrats in a survey mentioned helping in an electoral campaign– against civil service rules. Another third acknowledged nurturing political ambitions…” “Civil servants also sometimes played off the executive against Congress, claiming the ability to get appropriations despite the absence of the President’s support” (1989, 12, 14). In addition to the career officials, of course, in the Philippines, as in all presidentialist polities, there were always a good many overtly partisan Presidentially appointed “…agency heads and such aides as could be justified as ‘policy determining, highly technical or primarily confidential'” (1989, 10).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">This was the “normal” pattern of bureaucratic politics in the Philippines, always involving substantial Congressional intervention, before the advent in 1972 of the dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos. He sought to institutionalize an intermediate, highly politicized and well paid, layer of political appointees, the “Career Executive Service,” to become vehicles of his authoritarian regime and to help him perform functions of the dissolved Congress. Since the advent of President Corazon Aquino in 1986 and the attempt to re-establish a democratic presidentialist regime, there have been sweeping bureaucratic replacements, purges of many officials, and tumultuous reorganization schemes. The partisanship involved in this highly traumatic and often unsuccessful effort to “de-Marcosify” the bureaucracy are summarized by Carino (1989) and described in more detail in her monograph (1988).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In Chile a partisan type of merit system evolved. According to Valenzuela, “The Chilean civil service was recruited and promoted through a Chilean version of the spoils system: party recommendations, and legislative support, in addition to formal credentials, were important in gaining entry and crucial in rising to higher office. The civil service was fragmented… by strong partisan loyalties that prevented the development of institutional loyalties” (1984, 271).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">In practice, therefore, public officials in presidentialist regimes are typically cross-pressured from four main sources: the President, Congress, Courts, and Political Parties. Although comparable cross-pressures can no doubt be found in non-presidentialist regimes, they are less disruptive of administrative performance in them than they are in presidentialist systems where, I believe, they augment the forces contributing to the collapse of these regimes mentioned above. Further details on this subject can be found in Riggs.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></span></p><p align="center" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: 600; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">REFERENCES</span></span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Aberbach, Joel D., Robert D. Putnam, and Bert A. Rockman (1981). Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Baaklini, Abdo (1992). The Brazilian Legislature and Political System. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Beard, Charles (1913). An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution. New York: Macmillan.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Black, Eric (1988). Our Constitution: The Myth that Binds Us. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Blitz, Mark (1990). “Term Limits a Poor Solution.” Honolulu Advertiser Dec. 18, A14.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Broder, David (1990). Column. Honolulu Advertiser. March 14, A8.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Cannon, Lou (1990). “Term limits: GOP’s big hope.” Honolulu Advertiser, Dec. 15, 1990, A8.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Carino, Ledivina (1988). Bureaucracy for a Democracy: The Struggle of the Philippine Political Leadership and the Civil Service in the Post-Marcos Period. Occasional Paper No.88-1. Manila: University of the Philippines, College of Public Administration.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1989). “A Dominated Bureaucracy: An Analysis of the Formulation of, and Reactions to, State Policies on the Philippine Civil Service.” (Unpublished paper)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Cerny, Philip G. (1989). “Political Entropy and American Decline.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 18:1, 47-63.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Conaghan, Catherine M. (1989). “Loose Parties, Floating Politicians, and Institutional Stress: Presidentialism in Ecuador, 1979-88.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Crenson, Matthew A. (1975). The Federal Machine: Beginnings of Bureaucracy in Jacksonian America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">De Guzman, Raul P. and Mila A. Reforma, eds. (1988). Government and Politics of the Philippines. Singapore: Oxford University Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Dogan, Mattei, ed. (1975). The Mandarins of Western Europe. New York: John Wiley.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Durant, Robert F. (1990). “Beyond Fear or Favor: Appointee-Careerist Relations in the Post- Reagan Era.” Public Administration Review. 50:3, 319-331.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Duverger, Maurice. 1980. “A New Political System Model: Semipresidential Government.” European Journal of Political Research. 8, 165-187.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1984). “Which is the Best Electoral System?” Lijphart and Grofman, 31-39.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Federalist Papers (1961). Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. New York: New American Library.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Gillespie, Charles Guy (1989). “Presidential-Parliamentary Relations and the Problems of Democratic Stability: The Case of Uruguay.” (Paper for Georgetown Univ. Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Gonzalez, Luis E. (1989). “Presidentialism, Party Systems and Democratic Stability: The Uruguayan Case.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Greenberg, Edward S. (1980). The American Political System: A Radical Approach. Second edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hallett, George H., Jr. (1984). “Proportional Representation with the Single Transferable Vote: A Basic Requirement for Legislative Elections.” Lijphart and Grofman, 113-125.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hardin, Charles (1974). Presidential Power and Accountability. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. —– (1989). Constitutional Reform in the United States. Iowa State University Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Harris, James W. (1990). “Third Parties Out,” The Nation. Nov.12, 548-9.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hartlyn, Jonathan (1989). “Presidentialism and Colombian Politics.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Heclo, Hugh (1987). “The In-and-Outer System: A Critical Assessment.” In The In-and- Outers: Presidential Appointees and Transient Government in Washington. ed. C. Calvin Mackenzie. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hermens, Ferdinand A. (1984). “Representation and Proportional Representation.” Lijphart and Grofman, 15-30.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1989). “Making Democracy Safe for the World.” (Unpublished paper)</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1990). “From Tyranny to Democracy.” Freedom at Issue. New York: Freedom House. 114, 6-9.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Henry, Nicholas (1984). Governing at the Grassroots: State and Local Politics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Hoogenboom, Ari. (1961). Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Jackson, Robert H. and Carl G. Rosberg (1982). Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant. Berkeley: University of California Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Kesler, Charles (1988). “Separation of Powers and the Administrative State.” The Imperial Congress,” Gordon S. Jones and John A. Marini, eds. New York: Pharos Books (the Heritage Foundation).</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Lardeyret, Guy (1991) “The Problem with PR.” Journal of Democracy, 2:3, 36-41.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Lasswell, Harold D. and Abraham Kaplan (1950). Power and Society: A Framework for Political Inquiry. New Haven: Yale University Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Lazare, Daniel (1996) The Frozen Republic: How the Constitution is Paralyzing Democracy. Harcourt Brace [Note: this book appeared after the Riggs paper was published, but its critique of the American constitutional system is highly relevant to the theme of this essay.]</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Lijphart, Arend (1989). “Presidentialism and Majoritarian Democracy: Theoretical Observations.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—–(1991a) “Constitutional Choices for New Democracies.” Journal of Democracy. 2:1, 72-84.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1991b) “Double-Checking the Evidence.” Journal of Democracy, 2:3, 42-48.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—–and Bernard Grofman, (1984). Choosing an Electoral System. New York: Praeger.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Linz, Juan (1990). “The Perils of Presidentialism.” Journal of Democracy. 1:1, 51-69.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">—- and Arturo Valenzuela, eds. (1994) The Failure of Presidential Democracy. Baltimore: Johns Hoppkins</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Mainwaring, Scott, (1989). “Presidentialism in Latin America: A Review Essay.” Latin American Research Review, 25:1, 157-179.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1990a). “Brazilian Party Underdevelopment in Comparative Perspective.” Working Paper #134, University of Notre Dame, Kellogg Institute (Revised version of a paper presented at the International Political Science Association congress, 1988)</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1990b). “Dilemmas of Multiparty Presidential Democracy: The Case of Brazil.” (Paper prepared for the World Congress of Sociology)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">McClintock, Cynthia (1989). “Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does it make a difference? The Peruvian Case.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">McIlwain, Charles Howard (1947). Constitutionalism: Ancient and Modern. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Mezey, Michael L. (1989). “Congress within the United States Presidential System.” Paper presented at the APSA Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Miller, Trudi C. (1989). “The Operation of Democratic Institutions.” Public Administration Review, 49:6, 511-521.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Molinelli, N. Gullermo (1988). “President-Congress Relations in Argentina: l860s-1980s.” Paper presented at the IPSA World Congress, 1988, Washington, D.C.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—–(1989). (Personal letter with extended comments on Riggs (1988c) sent to the author on Sept. 11, 1989)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Newland, Chester A. (1987). “Public Executives: Imperium, Sacerdotium, Collegium? Public Administration Review. 47:1, 45-56.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Nino, Carlos Santiago (1988). “Transition to Democracy, Corporatism and Constitutional Reform in Latin America.” (Unpublished paper)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Pfiffner, James P. (1987). “Political Appointees and Career Executives.” Public Administration Review, 47:1, 57-65.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Pious, Richard M. (1986). American Politics and Government. New York: McGraw-Hill.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Quade, Quentin (1963). “Presidential Leadership: Paralyzed or Irresponsible.” Parliamentary Affairs. 17:1, 65-76.2</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1991) “PR and Democratic Statecraft.” Journal of Democracy, 2:3, 30-5.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Riggs, Fred W. (1965) “The Political Context of Administrative Reform: Relearning an Old Lesson.” Public Administration Review. 25:1, 70-79.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1973). “Legislative Structures: Some Thoughts on Elected National Assemblies,” Legislatures in Comparative Perspective. Allan Kornberg, ed. New York: McKay.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (l985). “Bureaucratic Power and Administrative Change.” Administrative Change. Jaipur, India. 11:2 (“1984”), 105-158.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1988a). “Bureaucratic Politics in the U.S.: Benchmarks for Comparison.” Governance. l:4, 343-379.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1988b). “The Interdependence of Politics and Administration.” Philippine Journal of Public Administration. 31:4 (“1987”), 418-438.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1988c). “Survival of Presidentialism in America: Para-constitutional Practices.” International Political Science Review. 9:4, 247-278.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1989). “The Political Ecology of American Public Administration: A Neo-Hamiltonian Approach,” International Journal of Public Administration, 12:3, 355-384.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1990). “A Neo-Institutional Typology of Third World Polities.” Contemporary Political Systems: Classification and Typologies. Anton Bebler and James Seroka, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1991). “Bureaucratic Links between Administration and Polities,” Ali Farazmand, ed. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration and Policy. New York: Marcel Dekker. pp.587-509.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1993a). “Fragility of the Third World Regimes.” International Social Science Journal. No.136, pp.199-243.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1993b). “Bureaucracy and the Constitution.” Public Administration Review. (in press)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Robinson, Donald L. ed. (1985). Reforming American Government: The Bicentennial Papers of the Committee on the Constitutional System. Boulder and London: Westview Press.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1989). Government for the Third American Century. Boulder, CO.: Westview.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Rodgers, Harrell R. and Michael Harrington (1985). Unfinished Democracy: The American Political System. 2nd edition. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Rohr, John A. (1986). To Run a Constitution. Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Rosenbloom, David (1983). “Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers.” Public Administration Review, 43:3, 219-227.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Rourke, Francis E. (1984). Bureaucracy, Politics, and Public Policy. Third ed. Boston: Little, Brown.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sartori, Giovanni (1976). Parties and Party Systems. Vol.I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1990). “Neither Presidentialism nor Parliamentarism.” (Paper for Stable Democracy in the Third World) (in press) Severn, Bill (1969). John Marshall: The Man Who Made the Court Supreme. New York: David McKay.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Smith, Hedrick (1988). The Power Game: How Washington Works. New York: Random House.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Suleiman, Ezra N. (1989). “French Presidentialism and Political Stability.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Sundquist, James L. (1986). Constitutional Reform and Effective Government. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Valenzuela, Arturo (1984). “Parties, Politics, and the State in Chile: The Higher Civil Service.” In Bureaucrats and Policy Making, Ezra N. Suleiman, ed. New York: Holmes & Meier.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">—– (1988). “Chile: Origins, Consolidation and Breakdown of a Democratic Regime.” in Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America. Larry Diamond, Juan Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds. Vol. 4. Denver, Colo.: Lynne Rienner. [references based on pre- publication draft]</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">—– (1989). “Party Politics and the Failure of Presidentialism in Chile.” (Paper for Georgetown University Symposium)</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Van Riper, Paul A. (1958). History of the United States Civil Service. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Verney, Douglas V. (1958). The Analysis of Political Systems. Glencoe: Free Press.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Waisman, Carlos H. (1989). “Counterrevolution and Structural Change: The Case of Argentina.” International Political Science Review, 10:2, 159-174.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Weaver, Leon (1984). “Semi-proportional and Proportional Representation Systems in the United States.” Lijphart and Grofman, 191-206.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">White, Leonard D. (1948). The Federalists. New York: Free Press.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1951). The Jeffersonians. New York: Macmillan.</span><br /><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—– (1954). The Jacksonians. New York: Macmillan. Winger, Richard, ed. Ballot Access News.</span></span></p><p style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span></p><div class="zem_rp_wrap zem_rp_th_vertical" id="zem_rp_first" style="border: 0px; clear: both; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;"><div class="zem_rp_content" style="border: 0px; display: inline-block; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></div></span></div><p></p><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-variant-numeric: inherit; font-weight: 300; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px 0px 1em; orphans: 2; padding: 0px; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: black; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: times;">Wright, J. F. H. (1984). “An Electoral Basis for Responsible Government: The Australian Experience.” Lijphart and Grofman, 127-134.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span><br /></p>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-80389932268081293282022-01-19T23:08:00.004-06:002022-08-25T08:08:45.256-05:00Freedom Amendments (abridged version)The <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/09/">Freedom Amendments</a> presents a series of amendments to the Constitution which some may consider radical due to the amendments changing the United States government from a presidential system of government into a parliamentary form of government. Some people are not prepared to consider this change for various reasons.<div><br /></div><div>The 16 proposed <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/09/">Freedom Amendments</a> seek to utilize the structure of the existing Constitution by amending it to make these changes. The ultimate and most radical ideas for change are presented in a <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/07/a-new-constitution.html">revision to the U.S. Constitution</a> which repairs many of the minor defects of the original by creating true limits on the national government which are not explicit in the original Constitution.</div><div><br /></div><div>That said, I have also created what one might call an abridged version of the Freedom Amendments which includes many of the limits on the national government incorporated into the <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2021/07/a-new-constitution.html">revision to the U.S. Constitution</a> but does not alter the government to a parliamentary type of government. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">Freedom Amendments (abridged)</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">I.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Every
law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject,
and that shall be expressed in the title.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">II.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises
to pay the debts and general operation of the government and provide for the
common defense of the United States, provided two-thirds of each house of
Congress approves, and two-thirds of each House of Congress approves any bill
for increasing revenue, and the spending authority of Congress shall be limited
to specific enumerated powers in this Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">III.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Congress shall have power to borrow money on the credit of the United States
provided two-thirds of each House of Congress approves.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">IV.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Congress
shall have no authority to make any law to interfere in the commerce of the
people of the United States or law impairing the obligation of contracts or to
mandate actions by any individual including those in furtherance of any
economic or commercial policy; to abridge the freedom of production, commerce
and the voluntary and free exchange of goods and services or to create, or
engage in, any business, professional, commercial, financial or industrial
enterprise.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">V.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Congress shall have power to declare war, provided two-thirds of each House of
Congress approves, and every declaration of war shall expire one year
thereafter unless two-thirds of each House of Congress shall authorize an
additional year, each year thereafter. Congress shall have no power to
authorize an act of war <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">by any bill, order, resolution or vote other than a declaration </span>of war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will
not admit of delay, according to law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">VI.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
several states may nullify any law of the United States, whenever three-fifths
of the legislatures of the several states choose to nullify such law. This must
occur within eighteen months of the enactment of the law as defined in Article
I.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">VII.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This Constitution,
and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof;
shall adhere to and be interpreted as the organization of the natural right of
lawful defense. It is the substitution of a common force for individual forces
and this common force is to do only what the individual forces have a natural
and lawful right to do: to protect persons, liberties, and properties; to
maintain the right of each.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">VIII.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
sixteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is
hereby repealed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">IX.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span>The Senate of the United States shall be composed of
three Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six
years, with a power reserved to a two-thirds majority of each legislature to
recall its Senators, or any of them; and each State shall have one vote in the Senate except
in trials of impeachment when each Senator shall have one vote. They shall be
divided equally into three classes, each class composed of one member of each
state delegation so that one third may be chosen every second year.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">X.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court
consisting of no more than nine judges who shall serve no more than thirty
years, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall, for
the thirty-year duration of their term, hold their offices during good behavior,
and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">The judges of the Supreme Court shall appoint the officer in charge of
executing the administration of justice for the United States. The officer in
charge of executing the administration of justice shall hold his office during one
term of ten years.</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">XI.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Congress
shall have no authority to provide any money to any state or engage with any
state to perform any policy, program or other service.</span></p></div>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-71785111279042282202021-11-01T14:34:00.005-05:002022-07-07T15:58:01.446-05:00Criminal Justice Reform<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">This paper is largely, but not entirely, excerpted from </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="https://globalwrong.files.wordpress.com/2015/09/kozinski-criminal-law-2.pdf" target="_blank">Criminal Law 2.0</a></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> by Judge Alex Kozinski (Ret. U.S. 9</span><sup style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">th</sup><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Circuit Court).</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Its primary focus is the reform of criminal
procedures in order to further guarantee a more just criminal justice
system.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">I urge all to read his essay in
its entirety as he describes the myths under which the system operates and
provides some of the remedies listed below to prevent many of the problems
created by the myths.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rather than
rewrite his entire essay, allow me to cite his list of myths and call upon the
reader to study his entire essay for his supporting arguments and
citations.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Judge Kozinski’s list of </span><b style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">myths</b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Eyewitnesses are highly reliable<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fingerprint evidence is foolproof.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Other types of forensic evidence are
scientifically proven and therefore infallible.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DNA evidence is infallible.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Human memories are reliable.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Confessions are infallible because innocent
people never confess.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Juries follow instructions.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prosecutors play fair.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The prosecution is at a substantial
disadvantage because it must prove its case beyond a reasonable doubt.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Police are objective in their investigations.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Guilty pleas are conclusive proof of guilt.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Long sentences deter crime.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Recommendations for reform</b> – </span><b style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Juries</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Give jurors a written copy of the jury
instructions.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jury instructions are often lengthy and difficult to follow.
Jurors are expected to absorb them by listening, which is probably the worst
way to learn new and complex subject matter.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Many judges try to ameliorate this problem by
sending a copy of the instructions into the jury room when the panel retires to
deliberate, but some judges refuse to do so. It should be reversible error for
a judge to fail to send a full set of jury instructions with the jury when it
retires to deliberate. Pre-instructing the jury on key concepts and giving them
those instructions in writing is a good idea.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Allow jurors to take notes during trial and
provide them with a full trial transcript.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Most judges now allow note-taking and provide writing materials
for the jury to use, but a minority refuse to do so. This should be reversible
error. Consulting notes during deliberations is immensely useful when the
jurors’ memories differ as to what a witness has said. Forcing jurors to rely on their recollections
alone exacerbates the distorting memory effects discussed above. In fact, I would go a step farther and give jurors
transcripts of the proceedings to consult during deliberations. This was not
possible when transcripts had to be transcribed laboriously by hand. But
real-time transcripts are now pretty much standard and available for the judge
and lawyers to consult while the trial is going on. There is no justification for
keeping jurors in the dark.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Allow jurors to discuss the case while the
trial is ongoing.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Most jury trials now start with a stern admonition that jurors
not discuss the case until they are sent out to deliberate. It’s unclear why we
do this except that we’ve always done it that way.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Allowing jurors to discuss what they’ve heard
could give them a chance to express doubts and to remind each other of the need
to keep an open mind.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Allow jurors to ask questions during the
trial.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I have been doing this for some years in civil cases and it
seems to work well. I ask jurors to put any questions in writing and hand them
up to me. I then share these questions with the lawyers and let one or both use
them during their examinations. Other techniques are possible, including having
jurors pose questions to the witnesses directly and letting the lawyers follow
up in light of the answers.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tell jurors up-front what’s at stake in the
case.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In most jurisdictions, jurors in non-capital cases are not told
what the likely punishment will be if the defendant is convicted. In fact, we
tell jurors not to consider punishment in deciding guilt. In making most life
decisions, we consider the consequences in determining how much effort to put
into deciding and the degree of confidence we must feel before we go forward.
Whether to get married or have a risky operation obviously requires a greater
psychological commitment than choosing between Starbucks and Peets. Jurors
should be told the gravity of the decision they are making so they can take it
into account in deciding whether to convict or acquit. As representatives of
the community where the defendant committed his crime, the jury should be
allowed to make the judgment of whether the punishment is too severe to permit
a conviction. Having to confront the jury with the severity of the punishment
they are seeking to extract may well deter prosecutors from using overcharging
as a bargaining tool.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Give jurors a say in sentencing.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Except for capital cases, we have turned our sentencing process
over entirely to experts and professionals. We have mandatory minimums,
sentencing guidelines, probation officers and judges at all levels involved in
the decision, but we studiously ignore the views of the very people who heard
the evidence and are given the responsibility to determine guilt or innocence
while reflecting the values of the community in which the offense occurred. This
is a system only a lawyer could love. Jurors should be instructed on the range
of punishments authorized by law and, if they find the defendant guilty,
entrusted to weigh in on the appropriate sentence within that range. And I
would make that the absolute upper limit of what punishment the judges actually
impose, overriding any sentencing guidelines, mandatory minimums or their own
considered judgment.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Recommendations for reform</b> – </span><b style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Prosecutors</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Require open file discovery.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">If the prosecution
has evidence bearing on the crime with which a defendant is being charged, it
must promptly turn it over to the defense. North Carolina adopted such a rule
by statute after Alan Gell was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, even
though the prosecution had statements of 17 witnesses who reported to have seen
the victim alive after Gell was incarcerated— evidence that the prosecution
failed to disclose until long after trial.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Three years
after its passage, the law forced disclosure of evidence that eventually
exonerated three Duke lacrosse players who were falsely accused of rape—and led
to the defeat, disbarment and criminal contempt conviction of Durham District
Attorney Mike Nifong.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Prosecutors
were none too happy with the law and tried hard to roll it back in 2007 and
again in 2012, but the result was an even stronger law that applies not only to
prosecutors but to police and forensic experts, as well it should.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> It cannot be
left to prosecutors to be in charge of deciding what evidence will be material
to the defense—something they cannot possibly do, because they do not know all
the potential avenues a defense lawyer may pursue, and because it is not in
their hearts to look for ways to help the other side.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adopt standardized, rigorous procedures for
dealing with the government’s disclosure obligations. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">For reasons
already explained, enforcing the government’s obligations is critical to
achieving a level playing field in criminal cases. But policing this conduct is
exceedingly difficult for the simple reason that “Brady violations . . . almost
always defy detection. The cops know it. The prosecutors know it. The defense
and the defendant have no idea whether Brady material exists.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Open file
discovery would go a long way toward ameliorating the problem, but not far
enough. The prosecutor’s file will generally contain what the police and
investigators consider to be inculpatory evidence; a great deal might be left
out that is unhelpful to the prosecution. Yet the government’s disclosure
obligation extends to information that is in the hands of investigators and
places an affirmative obligation on prosecutors to become aware of exculpatory
evidence that is held by others acting on the government’s behalf.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ensuring that the government complies with this
obligation cannot be left up to individual prosecutors. Rather, prosecutorial
offices must establish firm policies to ensure compliance. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">This does happen
from time to time. For example, in 1990, Chief Assistant United States Attorney
Mary Jo White of the Eastern District of New York, Chief of the Criminal
Division Bill Muller and Chief of the Narcotics Unit David Shapiro, among
others, issued a detailed, thoughtful 27-page memorandum analyzing the
government’s disclosure obligation at the time and recommending procedures to
be followed when dealing with informants and other government witnesses.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> One of those
recommendations was that the office maintain, and provide to the defense,
“information about every case in which an informant has testified as an
informant or a defendant, including the district or state in which the
proceedings took place, the docket numbers and transcripts, where possible . .
. and statements by a judge referring to a witness’s truthfulness and any
allegations of double dealing or other misconduct.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The memo
contained other similarly enlightened recommendations, disclosing a firm
commitment to complying with the spirit, not merely the letter, of Brady and
its progeny. Some years later, in 1999, a similar set of procedures was adopted
by the United States Attorney’s Office in the Northern District of California in
a manual drafted by one of the authors of the EDNY memo who had moved there and
served as head of the Criminal Division.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> But, according
to a lawyer who left the office in 2002, the manual was disregarded by the new
U.S. Attorney. Compliance with the
government’s disclosure obligations cannot be left to the political vagaries of
the District Attorneys’ offices across the state. Instead, the Attorney General must ensure
compliance by setting standards and meaningfully disciplining prosecutors who
willfully fail to comply. If they will not do it on their own, the General
Assembly must prod them into it by adopting such standards by legislation.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 13.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adopt standardized,
rigorous procedures for eyewitness identification.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">North Carolina
leads the way, once again, with the Eyewitness Identification Reform Act,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> which does just that. It provides in relevant part
that lineups “shall be conducted by an independent administrator”;
“[i]ndividuals or photos shall be presented to witnesses sequentially, with
each individual or photo presented to the witness separately”; the eyewitness
must be instructed that he “should not feel compelled to make an
identification”; “at least five fillers shall be included in a [photo or live]
lineup, in addition to the suspect”; and live identification procedures must be
recorded on video.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This law, too,
came as a result of a huge miscarriage of justice when Jennifer
Thompson-Cannino mistakenly identified Ronald Cotton as her rapist.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> He spent 11
years in prison before he was exonerated by DNA evidence.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The cases
involving mistaken eyewitness identification are legion.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Video record all suspect interrogations.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">The surprising
frequency of false confessions should make us deeply skeptical of any
interrogation we cannot view from beginning to end. Suspects are frequently
isolated and pressured in obvious and subtle ways, and when the process ends,
we often have very different accounts of what happened inside the interrogation
room.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> In those
circumstances, who are we to believe? Most of the time, the judge and juries
believe the police. There may have been a time when we had to rely on such
second-hand reports, but technology has now made this unnecessary: Video
recording equipment is dirt cheap, and storage space for the resulting files is
endless. No court should ever admit a confession unless the prosecution
presents a video of the entire interrogation process from beginning to end.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Impose strict limits on the use of jailhouse
informants.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">In response to a
devastating report on jailhouse informants issued by the Los Angeles County
grand jury in 1990, the county adopted procedures that required the approval of
a committee before informants could be used.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The use of
informants consequently plummeted.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Even still,
the practice of using jailhouse informants as a means of detecting and perhaps
manufacturing incriminatory evidence has continued in California.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Serial
informants are exceedingly dangerous because they have strong incentives to lie
or embellish, they have learned to be persuasive to juries and there is no way
to verify whether what they say is true.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> A man jailed
on suspicion of a crime should not be subjected to the risk that someone with
whom he is forced to share space will try for a get-out-of-jail-free card by
manufacturing a confession.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adopt rigorous, uniform procedures for
certifying expert witnesses and preserving the integrity of the testing
process.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">There is an effort
underway to do this at the federal level. A 30-member commission headed by the
Justice Department and comprised of forensic scientists, researchers,
prosecutors, defense attorneys and judges was founded a few years ago with the
goal of “improv[ing] the overall reliability of forensic evidence after
instances of shoddy scientific analysis by federal, state and local police labs
helped convict suspects.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> However, the
Justice Department recently made the unilateral decision that “the subject of
pre-trial forensic discovery—i.e., the extent to which information regarding
forensic science experts and their data, opinions, methodologies, etc., should
be disclosed before they testify in court—is beyond the ‘scope’ of the
Commission’s business and therefore cannot properly be the subject of
Commission reports or discussions in any respect.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This prompted
the resignation of commission member Judge Rakoff, who criticized the decision
as “a major mistake that is likely to significantly erode the effectiveness of
the Commission” and a reflection of “a determination by the Department of
Justice to place strategic advantage over a search for the truth.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> He elaborated:
“A primary way in which forensic science interacts with the courtroom is
through discovery, for if an adversary does not know in advance sufficient
information about the forensic expert and the methodological and evidentiary
bases for that expert’s opinions, the testimony of the expert is nothing more
than trial by ambush.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Judge Rakoff’s
noisy resignation had its desired effect: Two days later, the Justice
Department reversed its decision to bar the commission from considering issues
related to pre-trial forensic discovery.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Judge Rakoff
subsequently returned to the commission, which is now in the process of
preparing recommendations for the Attorney General. But why should the Justice
Department have to be buffaloed into doing the right thing?<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Keep adding conviction integrity units.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">We know that there
are innocent people languishing in prison, but figuring out who they are is very
difficult—more so if the prosecution, which has control of whatever evidence
there is, is fighting you tooth and nail. That turns out to be a common response
from prosecutors confronted with evidence that they may have obtained a
wrongful conviction. A separate unit within the prosecutor’s office, with access
to all the available evidence, and with no track record to defend, may be the
best chance we have of identifying wrongfully convicted prisoners. More than a
dozen such offices have been established across the country</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> and more are being added.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This trend
needs to continue and escalate. Better yet, there might be a federal agency to
investigate the problem of questionable state convictions. This would reduce
the bias that one state agency might have in favor of another. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">In addition, state
law ought to be revised to give convicted defendants full access to DNA and
other evidence in the possession of the prosecution. We have repeatedly
witnessed the appalling spectacle of innocent defendants spending many years
fighting to obtain the evidence that would eventually exonerate them. Michael
Morton spent six additional years in prison because District Attorney John
Bradley worked very hard to block Morton’s requests for DNA testing.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[29]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> And Anthony
Ray Hinton spent more than fifteen years in prison fighting for the right to test
evidence that eventually set him free.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[30]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Bruce Godschalk lost seven years</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[31]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">; Frank Lee Smith died in prison waiting for DNA testing
that eventually proved his innocence.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[32]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">There is no
justification for withholding evidence that might set an innocent man free from
unjust imprisonment. Whatever impediments have been interposed to prevent
access to such evidence to convicted defendants and those working on their
behalf ought to be summarily removed by legislation giving them full and swift
access to all evidence in possession of the government. Most states now have
laws allowing post-conviction access to DNA testing, but many are restrictive
in practice— for example, denying requests from inmates who originally
confessed to the crime or imposing a deadline of one year after conviction to
file a request.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[33]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Nebraska’s
statute, however, serves as a good example to emulate. It provides:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">[A] person in
custody pursuant to the judgment of a court may, at any time after conviction,
file a motion, with or without supporting affidavits, in the court that entered
the judgement requesting forensic DNA testing of any biological material that: <br />
(a) Is related to the investigation or prosecution that resulted in such
judgment; (b) Is in the actual or constructive possession or control of the
state or is in the possession or control of others under circumstances likely
to safeguard the integrity of the biological material’s original physical
composition; and <br />
(c) Was not previously subjected to DNA testing or can be subjected to
retesting with more current DNA techniques that provide a reasonable likelihood
of more accurate and probative results.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[34]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">The statute
further provides that DNA tests must be performed in a nationally accredited
laboratory, that the county attorney must submit an inventory to the defense
and to the court of all evidence secured by the state in connection with the
case.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[35]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Establish independent Prosecutorial Integrity
Units.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Prosecutors need
to know that someone is watching over their shoulders—someone who doesn’t share
their values and eat lunch in the same cafeteria. Move OPR to the Department of
Agriculture, and institute similar independent offices in the 50 states.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 9pt; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 40.5pt; text-indent: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abandon political
election of prosecutors.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 40.5pt; text-indent: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Excerpt: The United States is the only country in
the world that elects its prosecutors. While this practice may seem benign and
democratic, it is anything but, with disastrous consequences for justice. <span style="background: white;">That’s because elections affect how prosecutors behave, and not
for the better. Prosecutors are not like ordinary lawyers who represent the
interests of a single client. Instead, prosecutors are meant to balance the
public’s interest in prosecuting criminals with the public’s other interest in
fairness. Yet when running for reelection, prosecutors become overly
pugnacious, sacrificing fairness—which does not play well at the polls—for
convictions, which do play well.</span><span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">One study
published in the Charleston Law Review determined the electoral “tough on
crime” mantra emphasizes “wins,” even if the “wins” lead to over-punishment or
injustice. For example, the disciplinary commission report that sanctioned
Michael Nifong—the district attorney who prosecuted Duke University lacrosse
players on false rape charges in 2005—noted his upcoming primary as a
motivating factor for his misconduct. The pressure to produce wins has led to a
“win-at-all-costs” mentality in some offices, because voters reward such
behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Moreover,
elections provide structural incentives for district attorneys to bring more
cases to trial and seek longer sentences for prisoners, which in turn feed the
crisis of mass incarceration. A prosecutor is nearly 10 percent more likely to
take a case to trial, rather than seek a plea bargain, in the year before he or
she runs for reelection, according to a recent study.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> If the
prosecutor is running in a contested election, the odds increase another 15
percent. Elections tip the balance too far in the direction of incarceration.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[37]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span> </span>10.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0in;"> When
prosecutors misbehave, don’t keep it a secret.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 0.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 22.5pt; text-indent: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Defense lawyers
who are found to have been ineffective regularly find their names plastered into
judicial opinions, yet judges seem strangely reluctant to name names when it
comes to misbehaving prosecutors.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[38]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Indeed, judges
seem reluctant to even suspect prosecutors of improper behavior, as if they
were somehow beyond suspicion. For example, the district judge in the Kojayan
case, discussed above, could have obviated the appeal and the entire sordid
episode by forcing the Assistant U.S. Attorney to answer a simple question:
“Did Nourian have a plea agreement with the government?” Defense counsel urged
the judge to ask the question but to no avail. It was not until the oral
argument before our court that the AUSA was compelled to disclose that fact:</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">[Q]: Was there a
cooperation agreement? <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">AUSA: Well, your
honor, that is not something that’s in the record. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">[Q]: I understand.
Was there a cooperation agreement? <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">AUSA: There was an
agreement with the Southern District of New York and [Nourian], yes.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Naming names and
taking prosecutors to task for misbehavior can have magical qualities in
assuring compliance with constitutional rights. In Baca v. Adams,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> a panel of our court dealt with a case where both the
California trial court and the California Court of Appeal concluded that a
prosecutor lied on the stand, but nonetheless deemed the error harmless. During our questioning, we asked the Deputy
Attorney General arguing the case whether the lying prosecutor and another
untruthful witness had been prosecuted for perjury or otherwise
sanctioned. The answer, of course, was
that they had not been. We then
suggested that, in resolving the case, we would write an opinion naming those
who had misbehaved and the failure of the state authorities to take any actions
against them. The video of that oral
argument made its way to the blogosphere and has been viewed over 24,000 times.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Not
surprisingly, three weeks afterwards, the California Attorney General wrote
confessing error and requesting that we remand to the district court with
instructions that it grant a conditional writ of habeas corpus.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The incident,
by the way, illustrates the importance of providing video access to court
proceedings. It is far easier to hide an injustice from public scrutiny if only
the judge and a few lawyers know about it. Judges who see bad behavior by those
appearing before them, especially prosecutors who wield great power and have
greater ethical responsibilities, must hold such misconduct up to the light of
public scrutiny. Some of us regularly encourage prosecutors to speak to their
supervisors, even the United States Attorney, to ensure that inappropriate
conduct comes to their attention, with excellent results.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> If judges have
reason to believe that witnesses, especially police officers or government
informants, testify falsely, they must refer the matter for prosecution. If
they become aware of widespread misconduct in the investigation and prosecution
of criminal cases, a referral to the U.S. Department of Justice for a civil
rights violation might well be appropriate.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-right: 0.5in;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Recommendations for reform</b> – </span><b style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Judges</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Enter Brady compliance orders in every
criminal case.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Brady rule is
in many ways the ultimate guarantor of fairness in our criminal justice
system. This is because police have
unparalleled access to the evidence in criminal cases—both inculpatory and
exculpatory. Once a crime is reported
and police are on the scene, they can secure the area and prevent anyone from
touching anything until they are done.
They have control of what evidence is sent out for forensic testing;
they talk to witnesses and get their impression before anyone else does. Police and prosecutors, working together, can
lean on witnesses by threatening prosecution or offering leniency. If there is evidence helpful to the defense,
it will generally wind up in the possession of the police; if witnesses have
made helpful statements in their initial contact with investigators (as
happened in the Stevens case) that information will be in the sole possession
of the prosecution. A defense
investigator or lawyer plowing over the same territory after the police have
done their job will generally find the scene denuded of clues and witnesses who
are skittish and laconic. Brady and its
progeny therefore impose important obligations on prosecutors, obligations that
are too frequently ignored. In case
after case where an innocent person is exonerated after many years in prison,
it turns out that the prosecution failed to disclose or actively concealed
exculpatory evidence. But Brady is not
self-enforcing; failure to comply with Brady does not expose the prosecutor to
any personal risk.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> When Judge
Sullivan discovered that the prosecutors in the Stevens case had obtained their
conviction after failing to disclose exculpatory evidence, he appointed a
special counsel, DC attorney Henry Schuelke III, to independently investigate
the prosecutors’ conduct.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Schuelke
determined that the lawyers had committed willful Brady violations but that the
court lacked the power to sanction the wrongdoers because they had not violated
any court-imposed obligations.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The solution
to this problem is for judges to routinely enter Brady compliance orders, and
many judges do so already. Such orders vary somewhat from judge to judge, but
typically require the government to turn over, when received, documents and
objects, reports of examinations and tests, expert witness opinions and all
relevant material required by Brady and Giglio.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Entering such
an order holds prosecutors personally responsible to the court and will
doubtless result in far greater compliance.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Engage in a Brady colloquy.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">This procedure was
proposed by Professor Jason Kreag in an article published in the Stanford Law
Review Online.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The details
are outlined in Professor Kreag’s article but the general idea is that, during
pretrial hearings and before a defendant enters a guilty plea, the trial judge
would have a conversation with the prosecutor on the record, asking him such
questions as, “Have you reviewed your file . . . to determine if [it] include[s]
information that is favorable to the defense?” and “Have you identified
information that is favorable to the defense, but nonetheless elected not to
disclose [it] because you believe that the defense is already aware of the
information or the information is not material?”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> There is
nothing like having to face a judge on the record to impress upon lawyers the
need to scrupulously comply with their professional obligations. But the questions must be sufficiently specific
and detailed to avoid the mantra, “We’re aware of our Brady obligations and
we’ve met them.”<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adopt local rules that require the government
to comply with its discovery obligations without the need for motions by
the defense.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">The prosecution
need not present Brady evidence unless the defense asks for it, usually by
motion.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn51" name="_ftnref51" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This seems
sort of silly because the defense obviously wants whatever exculpatory evidence
the prosecution might have.
Surprisingly, few courts have rules that obviate the need for criminal
discovery motions.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn52" name="_ftnref52" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> I’m aware of
only a dozen or so federal courts that have local rules either stating that the
defense doesn’t need to make a formal discovery motion, or requiring the
government to disclose Brady/Giglio material within a specific time frame,
without mentioning a defense motion.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn53" name="_ftnref53" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> An example of
such a rule is Eastern District of Washington Local Criminal Rule 16(a), which
was adopted just last year. The rule requires the government to make available
within 14 days of arraignment: (1) all of the defendant’s oral and written
statements, the defendant’s prior record, documents and objects and expert
witness opinions that are in the government’s “possession, custody or control
or which may become known . . . through due diligence”; (2) information from an
“electronic eavesdrop, wiretap or any other interception,” as well as “the
authorization for and information gathered from” a tracking device or
video/audio recording used during investigations; (3) “search warrants and
supporting affidavits”; (4) information regarding whether physical evidence
intended to be offered in the government’s case-in-chief was seized without a
warrant; and (5) photographs used in any photo lineup, as well as information
obtained from any other identification technique.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn54" name="_ftnref54" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Rule 16(a)(6)
is a catchall clause that requires the government to “[a]dvise the defendant’s
attorney of evidence favorable to the defendant and material to the defendant’s
guilt or punishment to which defendant is entitled pursuant to Brady and United
States v. Agurs.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn55" name="_ftnref55" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> I have no idea
why this isn’t part of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, but it should
be.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Condition the admission of expert evidence in
criminal cases on the presentation of a proper Daubert showing.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">As Judge Nancy
Gertner has pointed out on numerous occasions,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn56" name="_ftnref56" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> courts in criminal cases routinely admit expert
evidence lacking the proper foundations and sometimes amounting to little more
than guesswork. Few defense lawyers
challenge the reliability of expert evidence because few trial judges grant
requests for Daubert hearings.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn57" name="_ftnref57" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> And appellate
courts affirm such denials under a very generous abuse of discretion standard.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn58" name="_ftnref58" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> With the
mounting number of wrongful convictions based on faulty expert evidence in such
diverse areas as arson and shaken baby syndrome, courts must be far more
rigorous in enforcing Daubert before allowing experts to testify in criminal
trials. Failure to hold a Daubert
hearing where the reliability of expert evidence has been credibly challenged
should be considered an error of law, as should the refusal to allow a defense
memory expert where the case turns on conflicting recollections of past events.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn59" name="_ftnref59" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[59]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abandon judicial elections<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Professor Monroe
Freedman made the case for the unconstitutionality of elected state judges in
his succinct monograph, <u>The Unconstitutionality of Electing State Judges</u>.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn60" name="_ftnref60" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[60]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> He relied on
the separate opinions of Justices O’Connor and Ginsburg in Republican Party of
Minnesota v. White,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn61" name="_ftnref61" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[61]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> citing Justice O’Connor’s opinion for “studies
showing that judges who face elections are far more likely to override jury
sentences of life without parole and impose the death penalty.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn62" name="_ftnref62" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[62]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The difficulty
confronting any judge who faces an election is compounded by the well-known
practice of prosecutors enlisting one of their own to oppose a judge that they
consider to be pro-defense.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn63" name="_ftnref63" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[63]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> And in at
least 19 states, lawyers may also “paper” or “affidavit” a judge by filing a
peremptory challenge to disqualify a judge they deem “prejudiced” against their
interests, without having to submit any explanation or proof of prejudice.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn64" name="_ftnref64" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[64]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This tactic
can be used en masse to effectively preclude a judge from hearing any criminal
cases, and is precisely what appears to be happening to the judge in Orange
County who removed the District Attorney’s office from a high-profile case
because of repeated instances of misconduct.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn65" name="_ftnref65" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[65]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> While many,
perhaps, most judges resist the pressure and remain impartial, the fact that
they may have to face the voters with the combined might of the prosecution and
police groups aligned against them no doubt causes some judges to rule for the
prosecution in cases where they would otherwise have ruled for the defense.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn66" name="_ftnref66" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[66]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Recommendations for reform</b> – </span><b style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">General</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abrogate absolute prosecutorial immunity<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">In Imbler v.
Pachtman,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn67" name="_ftnref67" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[67]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> a divided Supreme Court held that prosecutors are
absolutely immune from damages liability for misconduct they commit when
performing the traditional activities of a prosecutor. Imbler was not a
constitutional ruling; the Court was interpreting 42 U.S.C. § 1983. And it was
certainly not a result compelled by the language of the statute; section 1983
says nothing about immunity. Rather, Imbler reflected a pure policy judgment
that prosecutors needed complete freedom from liability in order to properly
discharge their functions. Writing for himself and two others, Justice White
would have adopted a more limited immunity rule that would have held
prosecutors liable for certain kinds of deliberate misconduct such as willfully
failing to disclose Brady and Giglio evidence.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn68" name="_ftnref68" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[68]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Under Imbler,
prosecutors cannot be held liable, no matter how badly they misbehave, for
actions such as withholding exculpatory evidence, introducing fabricated
evidence, knowingly presenting perjured testimony and bringing charges for which
there is no credible evidence. All are immune from liability. A defense lawyer
who did any such things (or their equivalents) would soon find himself disbarred
and playing house with Bubba. The Imbler majority seemed reassured by the
possibility that rogue prosecutors will be subject to other constraints:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">We emphasize that
the immunity of prosecutors from liability in suits under [§]1983 does not
leave the public powerless to deter misconduct or to punish that which occurs.
This Court has never suggested that the policy considerations which compel
civil immunity for certain governmental officials also place them beyond the
reach of the criminal law.... Moreover, a prosecutor stands perhaps unique,
among officials whose acts could deprive persons of constitutional rights, in
his amenability to professional discipline by an association of his peers.
These checks undermine the argument that the imposition of civil liability is the
only way to insure that prosecutors are mindful of the constitutional rights of
persons accused of crime.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn69" name="_ftnref69" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[69]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">This argument was
dubious in 1976 and is absurd today. Who exactly is going to prosecute
prosecutors? Despite numerous cases where prosecutors have committed willful
misconduct, costing innocent defendants decades of their lives, I am aware of only
two who have been criminally prosecuted for it; they spent a total of six days
behind bars.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn70" name="_ftnref70" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[70]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">There have been a
few instances of professional discipline against prosecutors, though even that
has been much less than against similarly-situated private lawyers.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn71" name="_ftnref71" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[71]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> By and large,
however, professional organizations are exceedingly reluctant to impose
sanctions on prosecutors for misconduct in carrying out their professional
responsibilities.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn72" name="_ftnref72" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[72]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Sidney
Powell’s book, Licensed to Lie, illustrates exhaustively the futility of
getting bar disciplinary boards to impose professional discipline for
misconduct committed in the course of criminal prosecutions.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn73" name="_ftnref73" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[73]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Despite this
dismal track record refuting the bland assurances of the Imbler majority that
prosecutors will be subject to other forms of control, even if damages lawsuits
are not available, the Court has reaffirmed Imbler on numerous occasions. Most
recently, in its unanimous opinion in Van de Kamp v. Goldstein,</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn74" name="_ftnref74" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[74]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> the Court denied compensation to the petitioner,
Thomas Goldstein, who had spent 24 years in prison based on the testimony of
notorious jailhouse snitch Edward Fink. Prosecutors used Fink as a utility
infielder in numerous cases, and he somehow always managed to testify that the
defendant had confessed.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn75" name="_ftnref75" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[75]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Unmoved, the
Court held the prosecutors and their supervisors were all protected by absolute
immunity and Mr. Goldstein can pound sand.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn76" name="_ftnref76" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[76]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">What kind of signal does this send to young
prosecutors who are out to make a name for themselves? I think it signals that
they can be as reckless and self-serving as they want, and if they get caught,
nothing bad will happen to them. Imbler and Van de Kamp should be overruled. It
makes no sense to give police, who often have to act in high pressure
situations where their lives may be in danger, only qualified immunity</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn77" name="_ftnref77" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[77]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">
while giving prosecutors absolute immunity. It is a disparity that can only be
explained by the fact that prosecutors and judges are all part of the legal
profession and it’s natural enough to empathize with people who are just like
you.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn78" name="_ftnref78" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[78]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">
If the Supreme Court won’t overrule
Imbler and Van de Kamp, Congress is free to do it by amending 42 U.S.C. § 1983.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">The doctrine of
qualified immunity operates as an unwritten defense to civil rights lawsuits
brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. It prevents plaintiffs from recovering damages
for violations of their constitutional rights unless a government official
violated “clearly established law,” which usually requires specific precedent
on point.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn79" name="_ftnref79" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[79]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> A civil action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 is often the
only way for a victim of official misconduct to vindicate these federally
guaranteed rights. But qualified immunity often bars even those plaintiffs who
can prove their case from remedying a wrong: harm, but no foul. Qualified
immunity thus enables public officials who violate federal law to sidestep
their legal obligations to the victims of their misconduct. In so doing, the doctrine
corrodes the public’s trust in those officials—law enforcement in particular—
making on-the-ground policing more difficult and dangerous for all officers,
including that vast majority who endeavor to uphold their constitutional
obligations. And the doctrine’s primary justification, to prevent public
officials from paying their own judgments, has proven empirically unfounded as
the widespread availability of indemnification already provides that
protection.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn80" name="_ftnref80" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[80]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Recently publicized episodes of police misconduct vividly illustrate the costs
of unaccountability. Indeed, the NAACP Legal Defense Fund has explicitly called
for “re-examining the legal standards governing . . . qualified immunity.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn81" name="_ftnref81" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[81]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The unlawfulness of qualified immunity is of
particular importance now. Despite its shoddy foundations, the Supreme Court
has been formally and informally reinforcing the doctrine of immunity. In
particular, the Court has given qualified immunity a privileged place on its
agenda reserved for habeas deference and few other legal doctrines. Rather than
doubling down, the Court ought to be beating a retreat.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn82" name="_ftnref82" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[82]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 30.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0in 0in 30pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abolish victimless crimes<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">“It is a maxim of
the law that there can be no crime without a criminal intent; that is, without
the intent to invade the person or property of another.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn83" name="_ftnref83" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[83]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<br />
We say we want criminal justice reform, but we must realize that it is not a
sentimental sideshow. Victimless crime laws are a blight on our humanity.
People that persist in maintaining them only deform their own souls more than
the prisoners they victimize. A free
society understands that the state does not own our body and mind; we work out
our own salvation as communities bound together by mutual forbearance.<br />
<br />
We should have learned our lesson from our experiment with Prohibition, which
spurred the rise of organized crime. Whenever a widely desired something is
criminalized, its value will rise exponentially, while the desire for it will
remain high, thus creating a need for an organization to fulfill that desire.
Peter McWilliams, author of “Ain’t Nobody’s Business If You Do”, explains how
this contributes to the rise of organized crime, including narco-trafficking:<br />
<br />
“If fulfilling that desire is a crime, that organization will be organized
crime. Operating outside the law as organized criminals do, they don't
differentiate much between crimes with victims and crimes without victims.
Further, the enormous amount of money at their disposal allows them to obtain
volume discounts when buying police, prosecutors, witnesses, judges, juries,
journalists, and politicians…. Once consensual crimes are no longer crimes,
organized crime is out of business.”<br />
<br />
Especially when the forbidden something is an addictive drug, its excessive cost
will incite some people to commit crimes they would otherwise not have
committed, such as robbery. Crimes committed for this reason can then become
habit forming, leading to more crimes. <br />
<br />
The time and money that goes into pursuing and punishing victimless crimes
drains money away from crime prevention and rehabilitation programs which could
otherwise contribute to reducing real crimes. And it even sometimes leads to
letting real criminals out of prison to make room for the victimless
“criminals”. McWilliams describes the problem:<br />
<br />
“Real criminals walk free every day to rape, rob, and murder again because the
courts are so busy finding consensual criminals guilty of hurting no one but
themselves. And even if the courts could process them, the prisons are already
full; most are operating at more than 100% capacity. To free cells for
consensual criminals, real criminals are put on the street every day.”</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sever
the relationship between crime labs and law enforcement <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Within the current
legal system, it is often difficult to challenge the analysis of a police crime
lab, even for the defense. Although the word “forensic” derives from the Latin
word for the forum, where citizens congregated to dispute public questions,
modern forensic science is anything but public or adequately open to dispute.
The forensics lab holds an effective monopoly on the analysis of the evidence
presented to it. The lab’s scientist is free to infer from the evidence without
being second-guessed. The forensic worker, therefore, has power.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">While the vast
majority of forensic scientists wield this power fairly and competently, a few
do not. The proper function of forensic science is to extract the truth.
According, however, to a study in 2001:</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">
<br />
“As it is practiced today, forensic science does not extract the truth
reliably. Forensic science expert evidence that is erroneous (that is, honest
mistakes) and fraudulent (deliberate misrepresentation) has been one of the
major causes, and perhaps the leading cause, of erroneous convictions of innocent
persons.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn84" name="_ftnref84" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[84]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the wake of DNA
exonerations, an extensive literature has developed on the limited reliability
of forensic testimony. The institutional structure of forensic work is an
important source of error, insufficiency, and occasionally, malfeasance.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Our adversarial criminal courts organize
disputes between the prosecution and the defense. But the current institutional
structure of forensic science places the results of forensic scientists largely
beyond dispute.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">
<br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">In
its report to Congress the National Academy of Sciences explains: “Forensic
scientists who sit administratively in law enforcement agencies or prosecutors’
offices, or who are hired by those units, are subject to a general risk of
bias.” That is why it is time to change the relationship between crime labs and
law enforcement. <br />
<br />
Forensic labs are often organized within police departments and are thus
dependent on the departments for their budgets. This institutional relationship
creates a pro-prosecution bias, as the managers of forensics units answer to
law enforcement agencies. For example, David Williams, an investigator in the
Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Explosives Unit, was found to have
“tailored” his testimony “to the most incriminating result” in two trials, namely,
the prosecutions for the World Trade Center bombing of 1993 and the Oklahoma
City bombing of 1995. In the Oklahoma case, “Williams repeatedly reached
conclusions that incriminated the defendants without a scientific basis and
that were not explained in the body of the report.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn85" name="_ftnref85" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[85]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><br />
“Scientific…assessment conducted in forensic investigations should be
independent of law enforcement efforts either to prosecute criminal suspects or
even to determine whether a criminal act has indeed been committed.
Administratively, this means that forensic scientists should function
independently of law enforcement administrators. The best science is conducted
in a scientific setting as opposed to a law enforcement setting. Because
forensic scientists often are driven in their work by a need to answer a
particular question related to the issues of a particular case, they sometimes
face pressure to sacrifice appropriate methodology for the sake of expediency.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn86" name="_ftnref86" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[86]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; margin: 0in 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Removing forensic
service providers from administrative oversight by law enforcement (to include
prosecutor’s offices) addresses the “fox guarding the hen house” issue. Those
responsible for acting on the jurisdiction’s or defendant’s behalf in court are
not in charge of the neutral arbiter of facts that support or refute criminal
allegations. The implication is not that all law enforcement oversight of
laboratory functions is biased but that—purely based on mandated
responsibilities—the potential for that particular brand of bias is greater
than if the laboratories were independent. Other types of bias may occur but,
as an independent agency, the laboratory can at least act on them without
collateral repercussions and resistance due to professional cultural
differences.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">Initiate
Mens Rea Reform<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">“The contention
that an injury can amount to a crime only when inflicted by intention is no
provincial or transient notion. It is as universal and persistent in mature
systems of law as belief in freedom of the human will and a consequent ability
and duty of the normal individual to choose between good and evil.”</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn87" name="_ftnref87" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[87]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Traditionally, the
criminal law held that the commission of a criminal act requires both mens rea,
or “a guilty mind,” and an actus reus, or “a bad act.” Neither element on its
own was sufficient to justify criminal sanctions; it was only when both of
these elements were present that a case would be dealt with in the criminal
system. A bad act without a guilty mind (e.g., a car accident where you are at
fault) would go to the civil tort system if it caused injury, and a guilty mind
without a bad act (e.g., your desire to kill someone that you never act on)
would be a matter for your conscience or religious confession.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn88" name="_ftnref88" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[88]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Today, with increasing frequency, the system has
turned away from this requirement, severely weakening or abandoning altogether
the mens rea standards that were once commonplace.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">At the state
level, we see that successful mens rea reform is possible. In a number of
states, most recently Michigan and Ohio, legislatures have enacted default mens
rea provisions—in which a designated mens rea standard is automatically
inserted into any criminal statute that lacks one unless the legislature
evinces a clear intent to enact a strict liability offense. These reforms have
been adopted with overwhelming bipartisan support. Even in states with such
provisions, prosecutions have continued apace and defendants are still being
convicted of the crimes with which they have been charged.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn89" name="_ftnref89" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[89]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Not only has the criminal justice system continued
without interruption, but the public’s respect for the moral force of the
criminal law in those states has also likely been enhanced.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rather than
continue the current system’s acceptance of criminal penalties for unwitting
violations of little-known regulations, we should reserve the severity of a
criminal penalty for those who act with mens rea, a guilty mind. It is
inevitable that bad outcomes will occur from time to time, by sheer accident or
by negligent acts. In these cases, the intent of the actor should make a
difference in whether he is criminally prosecuted or is dealt with through the
civil or administrative justice systems. Restoring moral blameworthiness to
greater prominence in our criminal laws through mens rea reform will revitalize
our criminal justice system and preserve its moral authority, which, in turn,
will engender respect for the rule of law.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b>Conclusion</b></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">I have taken Judge
Kozinski’s essay and edited and amended it with an eye to reforming the
criminal justice system in the State of Tennessee.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is in the best interest of the people of
this state that the criminal justice system is equitable, fair and protects the
rights of all parties.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">In order to
prevent the misapplication of the justice system on the innocent and to protect
the individual liberties which the application of some of our </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">malum
prohibitum </i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">laws allow, it is my firm conviction these changes are
necessary.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">We cannot call ourselves the
“land of the free” if a substantial portion of our population sits imprisoned,
unable to contribute to society, provide for their own well being and that of
their family.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">While Judge
Kozinski devotes most of his essay to criminal procedures, he also mentions
removing a certain number of felonies each day.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">He directs this at the Congress.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">I have chosen instead to focus on the General Assembly along similar
lines by advocating the abolition of victimless crime.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Above, I cited Lysander Spooner in this essay
but it is worth taking the time to read the most important portion of his
monograph, Part I:</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;">
<br />
Vices are those acts by which
a man harms himself or his property.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span> </span><span> </span><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Crimes are those
acts by which one man harms the person or property of another.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Vices are simply
the errors which a man makes in his search after his own happiness. Unlike
crimes, they imply no malice toward others, and no interference with their
persons or property.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">In vices, the very
essence of crime — that is, the design to injure the person or property of
another — is wanting.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is a maxim of
the law that there can be no crime without a criminal intent; that is, without
the intent to invade the person or property of another. But no one ever
practices a vice with any such criminal intent. He practices his vice for his
own happiness solely, and not from any malice toward others.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Unless this clear
distinction between vices and crimes be made and recognized by the laws, there
can be on Earth no such thing as individual right, liberty, or property — no
such things as the right of one man to the control of his own person and
property, and the corresponding and coequal rights of another man to the
control of his own person and property.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">For a government
to declare a vice to be a crime, and to punish it as such, is an attempt to
falsify the very nature of things. It is as absurd as it would be to declare
truth to be falsehood, or falsehood truth.</span><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftn90" name="_ftnref90" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">[90]</span></span></span></span></a></p><p>
</p><div><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="ftn1">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Michael A. Cohen et al., Auditory Recognition Memory Is Inferior to Visual Recognition
Memory, 106 PROC.NAT’L ACAD.SCIS. 6008, 6008 (Apr. 7, 2009).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See David A. Anderson, Let Jurors Talk:
Authorizing Pre-Deliberation Discussion of the Evidence During Trial, 174 MIL.
L. REV. 92, 94-95, 121-24 (2002) (chronicling the history of the prohibition
against pre-deliberation discussion and concluding that the rule doesn’t make
sense and should be abolished).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
EVIDENCEPROFBLOG, Open And Shut: North Carolina Strengthens Its Open Discovery
Law (June 3, 2011), http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/evidenceprof/2011/06/back-in-2004-north-carolinagovernor-mike-easley-signed-a-bill-into-law-that-required-prosecutors-to-share-their-files.html.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Duke Lacrosse Prosecutor Disbarred, CNN (June 17, 2007),
http://www.cnn.com/2007/LAW/ 06/16/duke.lacrosse/; THE ASSOCIATED PRESS, Day in
Jail for Ex-Duke Prosecutor, N.Y. Times (Sept. 1, 2007),
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/01/us/01nifong.html?_r0&gwhD729031CB5109A29647D63
F43549BEA4&gwtpay.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
N.C. GEN.STAT. § 15A-903(a)(1) (2011), available at http://www.ncleg.net/Sessions/2011/Bills/
House/PDF/H408v2.pdf (“Upon motion of the defendant, the court must order: The
State to make available to the defendant the complete files of all law
enforcement agencies, investigatory agencies, and prosecutors’ offices involved
in the investigation of the crimes committed or the prosecution of the
defendant.”); EVIDENCEPROFBLOG, supra n.135.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Scott
H. Greenfield, The Flood Gates Myth,SIMPLE JUSTICE (Feb. 16, 2015), http://blog.
simplejustice.us/2015/02/16/the-flood-gates-myth/.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419, 437 (1995).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
MARY JO WHITE ET AL., BRADY/GIGLIO DISCLOSURES (Oct. 30, 1990) (unpublished
internal memorandum, on file with author).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
at 2.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
AUSA Manual for the Northern District of California (unpublished internal
manual, on file with US 9<sup>th</sup> Circuit Court of Appeals).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> N.C.
GEN.STAT. § 15A-284.52 (2012), http://law.justia.com/codes/north-carolina/2012/chapter15a/article-14a/section-15a-284.52.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Innocence Project, Ronald Cotton,
http://www.innocenceproject.org/cases-false-imprisonment/ ronald-cotton. The
case and the reform that it triggered were featured on a 60 Minutes episode
titled “Eyewitness: How Accurate is Visual Memory?” See EVIDENCEPROFBLOG, Can I
Get A(n Eye) Witness: 60 Minutes Story Exposes Problems with Eyewitness IDs
(Mar. 9, 2009), http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/ evidenceprof/2009/03/those-of-you-wh.html.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Innocence Project, supra n.148<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> For
example, in Gantt v. Roe, 389 F.3d 908, 914 n.8 (9th Cir. 2004), the police
first showed an eyewitness a picture of a car owned by an initial suspect named
Wilson, which the witness identified as the car he had seen the morning of the
crime. The police then showed the witness a six-photo lineup including Wilson’s
photo, and “sure enough, [the witness] selected Wilson as someone who ‘looked
like the pedestrian he had seen,’” even though Wilson was eventually shown to
have zero connection to the crime. Id.; see also Newsome v. McCabe, 256 F.3d
747, 749 (7th Cir. 2001) (there was ample evidence that police officers had
“encouraged two witnesses to select [the defendant, who was exonerated after 15
years in prison,] from a lineup . . . yet withheld from the prosecutors
information about their coaching of the witnesses and the fact that these
witnesses earlier selected pictures from a book of mug shots that did not
contain [the defendant]’s photo”).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See,
e.g., Taylor v. Maddox, 366 F.3d 992 (9th Cir. 2004) (the defendant claimed his
confession was coerced, while the detectives argued otherwise); Milke, 711 F.3d
at 1002 (Detective Saldate claimed that Milke confessed to the murder during
her interrogation, while Milke maintained that Saldate ignored
herrequestforalawyerand“embellishedandtwisted[her]statementstomakeitsoundlikeshehadconfessed”).
In both these cases, we lacked access to a video or audio recording to
ascertain what really happened<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> This
practice has been adopted in England, Ireland and Australia, where the general
rule is that all interrogations—and not just confessions—must be recorded on
audio or video. However, Australia is the only country that explicitly provides
that the consequence for failing to record is inadmissibility of the contents
of the interrogation. See TOM SULLIVAN, COMPENDIUM: ELECTRONIC RECORDING OF
CUSTODIAL INTERROGATIONS, NationalAssociation of Criminal Defense Lawyers, July
11, 2014, available at http://www. nacdl.org/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id33287&libID33256.
In addition, a number of states, including Alaska, Arkansas, Minnesota, Montana
and New Jersey, require all interrogations to be recorded and consider
compliance with that requirement a factor in determining whether a statement
made in an interrogation is admissible. See id.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Henry Weinstein, Use of Jailhouse Testimony is Uneven in State, L.A. TIMES
(Sept. 21, 2006), http://articles.latimes.com/2006/sep/21/local/me-jailhouse21.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
supra n.107<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Russell D. Covey, Abolishing Jailhouse Snitch Testimony, 49 WAKE FOREST L. REV.
1375, 1376-1409 (2014).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Tim Cushing, Judge Resigns from Forensic Science Committee, Calls Out DOJ’s
“Trial By Ambush” Tactics,TECHDIRT (Feb. 5, 2015), https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20150202/11152629883/judgeresigns-forensic-science-committee-calls-out-dojs-trial-ambush-tactics.shtml;
Spencer S. Hsu, U.S. To Commit Scientists and New Commission To Fix Forensic
Science,WASH.POST (Feb. 15, 2013), http://www. washingtonpost.com/local/crime/us-to-commit-scientists-and-new-commission-to-fix-forensic-science/
2013/02/15/e11c31f8-77b3-11e2-8f84-3e4b513b1a13_story.html<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Full Text: Judge’s Protest Resignation Letter,WASH.POST (Jan. 29, 2015),
http://www. washingtonpost.com/local/full-text-judges-protest-resignation-letter/2015/01/29/41659da6-a7e1-11e4a2b2-776095f393b2_story.html.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Spencer S. Hsu, Judge Rakoff Returns to Forensic Panel After Justice Department
Backs Off Decision,WASH.POST (Jan. 30, 2015), http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/in-reversal-doj-letsforensic-panel-suggest-trial-rule-changes-after-us-judge-protests/2015/01/30/2f031d9e-a89c-11e4-a2b
2-776095f393b2_story.html.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Various
District Attorneys’ offices in 12 states, as well as the U.S. Attorney’s Office
in Washington, D.C., have established conviction integrity units for the
purpose of identifying and investigating wrongful conviction claims, often in
collaboration with local innocence projects. See Center for Prosecutor Integrity,
CONVICTION INTEGRITY UNITS, http://www.prosecutorintegrity.org/ (last visited
Mar. 18, 2015); CENTER FOR PROSECUTOR INTEGRITY,CONVICTION INTEGRITY
UNITS:VANGUARD OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE REFORM 9 (Dec. 2014), available at
http://www.prosecutorintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/
Conviction-Integrity-Units.pdf (noting that these conviction integrity units
have produced a total of 61 exonerations, with 33 attributed to the unit in
Dallas, Texas); Gardiner, supra n.46 (Brooklyn DA Kenneth Thompson overhauled
the office’s conviction integrity unit and, in a mere 7 months, has ordered 7
murder convictions overturned).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See,
e.g., Marisa Gerber, L.A. County D.A. to Create Unit to Review
Wrongful-Conviction Claims, L.A. TIMES (Apr. 22, 2015), http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-conviction-review-unit-201504
22-story.html#page1; Jim Forsyth, Bexar DA Establishes “Conviction Integrity
Unit”, WOAI LOCAL NEWS (Feb. 25, 2015),
http://www.woai.com/articles/woai-local-news-sponsored-by-five-119078/bexar-daestablishes-conviction-integrity-unit-13288998/.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Brandi Grissom, supra n.77. In the words of the Houston Chronicle, “The fall of
John Bradley was swift and severe and justified.” Lisa Falkenberg, Tossed from
Office, Ex-Williamson DA Lands Job in Sunny Palau, HOUSTON CHRON. (July 1,
2014), http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/
columnists/falkenberg/article/Falkenberg-5594473.php. Bradley lost the
Republican primary for Williamson County District Attorney in 2012, a post he
had held for a decade.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Just
recruiting the panel of experts, including a former F.B.I. official, to review
the forensic evidence took Hinton and his lawyers almost a decade. SeeAlan
Blinder, supra n.77; Anthony Ray Hinton Is Free After 30 Years Wrongfully On
Death Row,EQUAL JUSTICE INITIATIVE (Apr. 3, 2015), http://www.eji.
org/node/1064.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Sara Rimer, DNA Testing in Rape Cases Frees Prisoner After 15 Years, N.Y. TIMES
(Feb. 15, 2002),
http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/15/us/dna-testing-in-rape-cases-frees-prisoner-after-15-years.html.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
The National Registry of Exonerations, Frank Lee Smith,
https://www.law.umich.edu/special/
exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid3644. Smith was exonerated on the basis
of DNA testing results 11 months after his death in 2000 and 14 years after his
conviction. He had requested DNA testing to no avail for 2 years.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Sue Russell, The Right and Privilege of Post-Conviction DNA Testing,PACIFIC
STANDARD (Oct. 4, 2012),
http://www.psmag.com/politics-and-law/the-right-and-privilege-of-post-conviction-dna-testing47781;
Innocence Project, ACCESS TO POST-CONVICTION DNA TESTING (Oct. 10, 2014),
http://www.
innocenceproject.org/free-innocent/improve-the-law/fact-sheets/access-to-post-conviction-dna-testing.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn34">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Neb. Rev. Stat. § 29-4120<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn35">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[35]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn36">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Bandyopadhyay,
S. & McCannon, B.C. Public Choice (2014) 161: 141.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-013-0144-0<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn37">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[37]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Novak,
Andrew. “It's Too Dangerous to Elect Prosecutors.” <i>The Daily Beast</i>, The
Daily Beast Company, 24 Aug. 2015, www.thedailybeast.com/its-too-dangerous-to-elect-prosecutors?ref=scroll.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn38">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[38]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Adam M. Gershowitz, Prosecutorial Shaming: Naming Attorneys to Reduce
Prosecutorial Misconduct, 42 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 1059, 1069-71 & n.21
(2009).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn39">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> United
States v. Kojayan, 8 F.3d 1315, 1320 (9th Cir. 1993). The Justice Department
reacted with typical insouciance: It filed a motion to depublish the opinion or,
in the alternative, to amend the opinion to remove the AUSA’s name. USA’s
Motion for Depublication, or in the Alternative, Modification of Opinion
w/Declaration of AUSA Sinek, No. 95-50875, Dkt. 51 (Sept. 24, 1993); see supra
n.129.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn40">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> No.
13-56132, 2015 WL 412835, at *1 (9th Cir. Jan. 30, 2015).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn41">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
13-56132 Johnny Baca v. Derral Adams,YOUTUBE (Jan. 8, 2015),
https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v2sCUrhgXjH4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn42">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Appellee’s
Unopposed Motion for Summary Reversal and Remand to the District Court to
Conditionally Grant the Writ, Baca v. Adams (Jan. 29, 2015) (No. 13-56132, Dkt.
33).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn43">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> A
memorable example is United States v. Maloney, 755 F.3d 1044 (9th Cir. 2014)
(en banc). The AUSA had sandbagged the defense at trial by making for the first
time a factual assertion not in the record in his rebuttal during closing
argument. At oral argument, I asked the AUSA to go back and show the video of
the oral argument to the U.S. Attorney and “see whether this [conduct] is
something [she] want[s] to be teaching [her] line attorneys.” 11-50311 United
States v. Maloney,YOUTUBE (Sept. 19, 2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?vHgafGnA4Eow,
at 59:00. A little over two weeks later, we received a letter from Laura Duffy,
the U.S. Attorney herself, admitting that the AUSA had acted improperly and
promising to “use the video of the argument as a training tool to reinforce the
principle that all Assistant U.S. Attorneys must be aware of the rules
pertaining to closing argument and must make every effort to stay well within
these rules.” Motion to Summarily Reverse the Conviction, Vacate the Sentence
and Remand to the District Court, United States v. Maloney (Oct. 7, 2013) (No.
11-50311, Dkt. 52-1). Bravo Ms. Duffy!<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn44">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> But
not always successful. In our opinion vacating Milke’s conviction, we made an
express referral of the matter to the Justice Department based on what appeared
to us to be knowing and repeated use of perjured testimony by Detective Saldate
in a large number of criminal prosecutions. Milke, 711 F.3d at 1019-20. The
Justice Department declined to investigate the matter, yet evidence that
Milke’s case was not an isolated incident was readily available. For example,
in a recent letter to the editor complaining about Milke’s release, a colleague
of Saldate’s in the 1980s stated: “I am painfully aware that Detective Armando
Saldate and his now deceased partner were notorious for bending the rules,
especially when it came to suspect interviews. Other homicide detectives
attempted to make supervisors aware of these serious issues. They were met with
disdain and angrily told that if they couldn’t be a team player, they could find
another place to work. Nothing else was said for fear of retaliation, and no
corrective steps were taken.” See Antonio Morales Jr., Op-ed, Milke Doesn’t
Deserve Her Freedom, AZ CENTRAL (Mar. 20, 2015),
http://www.azcentral.com/story/opinion/letters/2015/03/19/milke-deserve-freedom/25057
361/. If evidence of such widespread misconduct in the highest level of a
metropolitan police department is
unworthyofevenaninvestigationbytheU.S.JusticeDepartment,onemustwonderwhatis.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn45">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U.S. 409, 430, 431 n.34 (1976) (prosecutors are
absolutely immune for “activities [that are] intimately associated with the
judicial phase of the criminal process,” including the willful suppression of
exculpatory evidence). <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn46">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Henry F. Schuelke III, Special Counsel, Report to Hon. Emmet G. Sullivan of
Investigation Conducted Pursuant to the Court’s Order, supra n.119.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn47">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
See Id<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn48">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> These
orders are routine among all the district judges in the Eastern District of
Washington. See, e.g., Judge Justin Quackenbush, Scheduling Order at 1, No.
2:15-CR-0025-JLQ (E.D. Wa. Mar. 23, 2015) (“the United States shall forthwith
provide, when received, all relevant material required by Brady and by Giglio”)
(citations omitted); Judge Edward Shea, Case Management Order at 4, No.
4:14-CR-6053-EFS (E.D. Wa. Feb. 13, 2015) (“The Court further presumes a
request for discovery and disclosure under Federal Rules of Evidence 404(b),
608(b), and 609, Brady, Giglio, United States v. Henthorn, 931 F.2d 29 (9th
Cir. 1991), and their progeny.”) (citations omitted).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn49">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Jason
Kreag, The Brady Colloquy, 67 STAN. L. REV.ONLINE 47 (2014).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn50">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
Id at 50<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn51">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref51" name="_ftn51" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Bennett L. Gershman, Litigating Brady v. Maryland: Games Prosecutors Play, 57
CASE W. RES. L. REV. 531, 534 (2007), available at
http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1535&contextlawfaculty
(“Prosecutorial disclosure of Brady evidence is not automatic. Prosecutors are
typically required to provide Brady evidence only upon a request.”);
FED.JUDICIAL CTR., TREATMENT OF BRADY V. MARYLAND MATERIAL IN UNITED STATES
DISTRICT AND STATE COURTS’ RULES, ORDERS, AND POLICIES 14 (2007), available at
https://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/fjc/bradyma2.pdf.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn52">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref52" name="_ftn52" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
LAURAL HOOPER ET AL., FED.JUDICIAL CTR., A SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO A NATIONAL
SURVEY OF RULE 16 OF THE FEDERAL RULES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE AND DISCLOSURE
PRACTICES IN CRIMINAL CASES: FINAL REPORT TO THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON CRIMINAL
RULES (2011), available at http://www.uscourts.gov/
uscourts/RulesAndPolicies/rules/Publications/Rule16Rep.pdf.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn53">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref53" name="_ftn53" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Courts
that require the government to provide criminal discovery without a motion
include the District of Hawaii, District of Kansas, District of New Hampshire,
District of New Mexico, Western District of Texas, Eastern District of
Washington and Eastern District of Wisconsin. Courts that imply as much include
the Middle District of Alabama, Southern District of Alabama, Northern District
of California, District of Massachusetts, Northern District of New York and the
District of Vermont. See id. at 18.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn54">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref54" name="_ftn54" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> U.S.
District Court for the Eastern District of Washington, Local Crim. R. 16(a),
available at http://www.waed.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/Local_Criminal_Rules-20150303_0.pdf.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn55">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref55" name="_ftn55" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
(citations omitted).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn56">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref56" name="_ftn56" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See,
e.g., Nancy Gertner, Judges Need to Set a Higher Standard for Forensic
Evidence, N.Y. TIMES (Mar. 30, 2015),
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/03/30/robert-durst-handwriting-andjudging-forensic-science/judges-need-to-set-a-higher-standard-for-forensic-evidence;
Nancy Gertner, Commentary on the Need for a Research Culture in the Forensic
Sciences, 58 UCLA L. REV. 789, 793 (2011).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn57">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref57" name="_ftn57" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
David E. Bernstein, The Misbegotten Judicial Resistance to the Daubert
Revolution, 89 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 27, 50-66 (2013). Moreover, “[s]tatistics
substantiate the ubiquity of defense failure to initiate Daubert challenges,
confirming the rarity in the trial courts of any defense challenge to a
prosecutor’s proffered expert testimony.” See also Peter J. Neufeld, The (Near)
Irrelevance of Daubert to Criminal Justice and Some Suggestions for Reform, 95
AM. J. PUB.HEALTH 107, 110 (2005).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn58">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref58" name="_ftn58" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See, e.g., Gen. Elec. Co. v. Joiner, 522 U.S.
136, 141 (1997).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn59">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref59" name="_ftn59" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[59]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
supra pp. vi-vii and accompanying footnotes<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn60">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref60" name="_ftn60" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[60]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Monroe
H. Freedman, The Unconstitutionality of Electing State Judges, 26 GEO. J. LEGAL
ETHICS 217 (2013).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn61">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref61" name="_ftn61" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[61]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> 536 U.S. 765 (2002).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn62">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref62" name="_ftn62" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[62]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Freedman,
supra n.201, at 218.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn63">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref63" name="_ftn63" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[63]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Jennifer Emily, Dallas DA Accused of Pushing Prosecutors to Run Against Judges,
THE DALLAS MORNING NEWS (Oct. 7, 2013),
http://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/local-politics/20131006da-accused-of-pushing-prosecutors-to-run-against-incumbent-judges.ece
(six prosecutors from the Dallas County DA’s office were running for state
district judge benches, five of whom were challenging incumbent Democratic
judges).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn64">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref64" name="_ftn64" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[64]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Michelle Quinn, District Attorney’s Boycott of a Judge Raises Issues, N.Y.
TIMES (Mar. 20, 2010),
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/21/us/21sfcourt.html?pagewantedall&_r0
(Santa Clara County DA disqualified one judge from 100 cases as retaliation for
the judge freeing a child molester after the deputy DA provided false testimony
and withheld exculpatory evidence); Maureen Cavanaugh & Pat Finn, San
Diego’s Great Judge Boycott, KPBS (Feb. 22, 2010) http://www.kpbs.org/news/2010/feb/22/sandiegos-great-judge-boycott/
(discussing the boycott of certain judges by the San Diego County DA’s office
after those judges had either made rulings against the prosecution or
criticized prosecutors for failing to disclose exculpatory evidence).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn65">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref65" name="_ftn65" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[65]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Prosecutors
from the Orange County DA’s office made blanket disqualification requests against
Judge Thomas Goethals in his other criminal cases as soon as he began probing
into the misuse of jailhouse informants in the Dekkrai murder trial. See supra
n.131; Eric Hartley, Prosecutors Avoiding Judge They Say Is Biased, O.C. REG.
(June 13, 2014), http://www.ocregister.com/articles/prosecutors-6182
07-goethals-judge.html?page1. The Orange County Bar Association took notice and
passed Resolution 15R-01, titled “Independence of the Judiciary,” in which it
stated that it “publicly disapproves of the use of tactics which are, or have
the appearance of being, punitive and retaliatory towards any sitting judge,”
and that “the excessive use of [the affidavit procedure] against a particular
judge can be . . . inappropriate . . . and could be construed as an attempt to
intimidate not just that judge, but the entire judiciary, who will and must
remain independent.” See Orange Cnty. Bar Ass’n, Resolution 15R-01: Independence
of the Judiciary (Mar. 27, 2015),
http://www.ocbar.org/Portals/0/pdf/press_releases/2015/2015_03_30_OCBA_
ResolutionR15-01.pdf.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn66">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref66" name="_ftn66" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[66]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
supra n.129 (again, life tenure is a wonderful thing).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn67">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref67" name="_ftn67" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[67]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> 424
U.S. 409, 430, 431 n.34 (1976).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn68">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref68" name="_ftn68" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[68]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
at 438-45 (White, J., concurring). In fact, on May 1, 2015, the Supreme Court
of Canada reversed course and embraced a similar rule. See Henry v. British
Columbia (Attorney General), [2015] S.C.C. 24 (Can.) (government may be sued
when prosecutors intentionally withhold evidence favorable to the defense).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn69">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref69" name="_ftn69" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[69]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
at 428-29.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn70">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref70" name="_ftn70" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[70]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Texas
district attorney Ken Anderson, see supra n.77, went to jail for five days
(serving only half of his 10-day sentence) for hiding evidence that put Michael
Morton in prison for a quarter of a century. And he got even that much because
he was found in contempt of a Brady compliance order entered by the trial judge
in that case. See Texas Prosecutor to Serve 10 Days for Innocent Man’s 25-Year
Imprisonment, THE GUARDIAN (Nov. 8, 2013), http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/08/texas-prosecutor-kenanderson-michael-morton-trial.
None of the prosecutors who concealed evidence in the Stevens criminal case
were prosecuted, and the two who were initially disciplined by the DOJ got
their sanctions overturned by the Merit Systems Protection Board. See supra
n.175. Mike Nifong, the district attorney who committed widespread misconduct
when prosecuting the Duke Lacrosse players, was convicted of criminal contempt
but sentenced to just one day in jail. See supra n.136. The list of prosecutors
who have committed misconduct causing serious, lasting harm to innocent people
and who have not themselves been criminally prosecuted is very long indeed. I
am aware of no prosecutors, other than Ken Anderson and Mike Nifong, who have
been convicted of prosecutorial misconduct.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn71">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref71" name="_ftn71" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[71]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> For
example, Trinidad County, Colorado District Attorney Frank Ruybalid pleaded
guilty to over a dozen instances of professional misconduct and had his law
license suspended for six months, but that suspension was immediately
suspended, even though “private attorneys ‘have received sanctions more severe
than a six-month stayed suspension’ for conduct similar to Ruybalid’s.” See
Alan Prendergast, Frank Ruybalid, Trinidad District Attorney, Cops a Plea,
Admits Misconduct,WESTWORD (Jan. 29, 2015),
http://www.westword.com/news/frank-ruybalid-trinidad-district-attorney-cops-a-plea-admits-misconduct6282816
(quoting the settlement agreement).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn72">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref72" name="_ftn72" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[72]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Nor
have courts been eager to uphold sanctions imposed by professional
organizations. See, e.g., In re Kline, No. 13-BG-851, at 2-3 (D.C. Ct. App.
Apr. 9, 2015), available at http://www.dccourts.gov/
internet/documents/13-BG-851.pdf (despite finding that “Bar Counsel proved by
clear and convincing evidence that [the prosecutor] intentionally failed to
disclose information in violation of [a D.C. Rule of Professional Conduct
prohibiting prosecutors from intentionally withholding exculpatory evidence
from the defense in a criminal case], the panel concluded that “given the
confusion regarding the correct interpretation of a prosecutor’s obligations
under the rule, sanctioning [the prosecutor] would be unwarranted”). One can
hope that prosecutors in the District of Columbia will no longer be confused as
to their disclosure obligations after In re Kline.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn73">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref73" name="_ftn73" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[73]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
POWELL, supra n.116, at 397-401.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn74">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref74" name="_ftn74" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[74]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> 555
U.S. 335 (2009).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn75">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref75" name="_ftn75" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[75]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
at 339.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn76">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref76" name="_ftn76" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[76]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Id.
at 349 (“[W]here a § 1983 plaintiff claims that a prosecutor’s management of a
trial-related information system is responsible for a constitutional error at
his or her particular trial, the prosecutor responsible for the system enjoys
absolute immunity just as would the prosecutor who handled the particular trial
itself.”).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn77">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref77" name="_ftn77" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[77]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See,
e.g., Messerschmidt v. Millender, 132 S. Ct. 1235 (2012); see also Devereaux v.
Abbey, 263 F.3d 1070 (9th Cir. 2001) (en banc) (police have only qualified
immunity for allegedly fabricating evidence in a criminal case); Gantt v. City
of Los Angeles, 717 F.3d 702 (9th Cir. 2013) (same).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn78">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref78" name="_ftn78" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[78]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Though
it raises other questions, it’s also worth taking another look at absolute
judicial immunity. See Timothy M. Stengel, Absolute Judicial Immunity Makes
Absolutely No Sense: An Argument for an Exception to Judicial Immunity, 84
TEMP. L. REV. 1071 (2012) (arguing that absolute judicial immunity should be
removed in cases where malice or corruption is substantiated).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn79">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref79" name="_ftn79" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[79]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; font-family: NexusSansWebPro, serif;">Baude, William, Is Qualified Immunity Unlawful? (February 18,
2018). 106 California Law Review 45, 2018; U of Chicago, Public Law Working
Paper No. 610.</span> <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn80">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref80" name="_ftn80" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[80]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> BRIEF
OF CROSS-IDEOLOGICAL GROUPS DEDICATED TO ENSURING OFFICIAL ACCOUNTABILITY,
RESTORING THE PUBLIC’S TRUST IN LAW ENFORCEMENT, AND PROMOTING THE RULE OF LAW
AS AMICI CURIAE IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONER; Doe v. Woodard, No. 18-1066 (10th
Cir. 2019)<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn81">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref81" name="_ftn81" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[81]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
LDF Statement on the Non-Indictment of Cleveland Police Officers in the
Shooting Death of Tamir Rice, NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE FUND (Dec. 28, 2015), http://www.naacpldf.org/pressrelease/ldf-statement-non-indictment-cleveland-police-officers-shooting-death-tamir-rice
[https://perma.cc/9KMQ-PCFA].<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn82">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref82" name="_ftn82" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[82]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; font-family: NexusSansWebPro, serif;">Baude, William, Is Qualified Immunity Unlawful? (February 18,
2018). 106 California Law Review 45, 2018; U of Chicago, Public Law Working
Paper No. 610.</span> <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><o:p> </o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn83">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref83" name="_ftn83" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[83]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> from,
Spooner, Lysander “Vices Are Not Crimes: A Vindication of Moral Liberty (1875)<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn84">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref84" name="_ftn84" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[84]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Michael
J. Saks, et al., “Model Prevention and Remedy of Erroneous Convictions Act,”
Arizona State Law Journal, vol. 33, 2001.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn85">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref85" name="_ftn85" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[85]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> United
States Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, The FBI
Laboratory: An Investigation into Laboratory Practices and Alleged Misconduct
in Explosives-Related and Other Cases (http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/97-04a/index.htm,
1997)<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn86">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref86" name="_ftn86" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[86]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> National
Research Council. 2009. <i>Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States:
A Path Forward</i>. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press at 23-24.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn87">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref87" name="_ftn87" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[87]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Morissette
v. United States 342 U.S. 246, 250 (1952)<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn88">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref88" name="_ftn88" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[88]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Paul
Rosenzweig, Congress Doesn’t Know Its Own Mind—And That Makes You a Criminal,
Heritage Foundation Legal Memorandum No. 98 (July 18, 2013), available at
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/congress-doesnt-know-its-own-mind-and-that-makes-you-a-criminal.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn89">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref89" name="_ftn89" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[89]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> See
Josh Siegel, How Michigan and Ohio Made It Harder to Accidentally Break the
Law, Daily Signal (Jan. 27, 2016), http://dailysign.al/21L3b0L
[perma.cc/8F4W-L6J7]; John S. Baker, Jr., Mens Rea and State Crimes, Federalist
Society White Paper (2012), http://bit.ly/1QwwzRq [perma.cc/5QFF-4AHB] (noting
states that have default mens rea provisions, including Alaska, Arkansas,
Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, North Dakota, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, and Utah).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn90">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="https://d.docs.live.net/81902c6b3fb4199b/Documents/Criminal%20Justice%20Reform.docx#_ftnref90" name="_ftn90" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[90]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> from,
Spooner, Lysander “Vices Are Not Crimes: A Vindication of Moral Liberty (1875)<br />
Lysander Spooner (1808–1887) is an American individualist anarchist and legal
theorist and also the author of some of the most radical political and economic
writings of the 19th century, and continues to have a huge influence on
libertarian thinkers today. He was a dedicated opponent of slavery in all its
forms but also a dedicated opponent of the federal invasion of the South and
its postwar reconstruction.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div><div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><div id="ftn90" style="mso-element: footnote;">
</div>
</div>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-11184988676615662592021-09-17T13:09:00.031-05:002022-11-21T21:08:24.055-06:00Freedom Amendments<p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Some years ago, author, lawyer and radio talk show host Mark Levin wrote a book titled <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Liberty-Amendments-Mark-R-Levin/dp/145160632X">The Liberty Amendments</a>. His idea was for a new set of ten amendments to the Constitution with the goal of enhancing liberty. While his arguments are compelling and correct, some of his amendments could eventually make matters worse. Some of his amendment ideas treat symptoms rather than underlying causes of the problems with the US constitutional framework.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">For this reason, the Freedom Amendments are being proposed. These amendments set about to make the change necessary to stop the problems which create the symptoms Mark Levin's amendments attempt to treat. In doing so, these amendments alter the constitutional order from a presidential system of governance to that of a parliamentary system of government. But why a parliamentary system after over two centuries of a presidential system?</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The answer lies in what has become of the office of the President. In essence, it has become what Arthur Schlesinger, Jr called <a href="https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl">The Imperial Presidency</a>. <span>According to Professor of political science <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cronin" title="Thomas Cronin">Thomas E. Cronin</a>, author of <i>The State of the Presidency,</i>
the Imperial Presidency is a term used to define a danger to the
American constitutional system by allowing the Presidency to create and
abuse presidential prerogative during national emergencies.
Its prerogative was based on: presidential war powers vaguely
defined in the constitution, and secrecy - a system used that
shields the Presidency from the usual checks and balances afforded by
the legislative and judicial branches.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Ultimately, a parliamentary form of government restores the correct balance between the executive and the legislature by giving the legislature the necessary oversight of the executive to restrain its imperial tendencies and deprive it of the power that a popular mandate, gained through elections, gives to the executive.<br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The selection of judges has become extremely politicized. This is due to the fact that both the President who nominates judges and the Senate that confirms those nominations have become extremely political offices due to the direct election of senators and the presidency being very close to being chosen by a national popular vote. Therefore, the benefit of restoring the Senate to being selected as originally designed by the Founders goes further than just to rebalance the state-federal relationship. It helps to depoliticize the judicial selection process. The President, now twice removed from voters, no longer possesses the powers of head of government but is much less a political figure who can make judicial nominations, free from political pressure and consideration. Together these will go a long way toward making the judiciary even more independent, less political and will legitimize the decisions of courts in the minds of the public.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The growth of the power of the executive is only part of the problem with the US government. Congress has found and the Constitution has prevented numerous usurpations of powers not specifically enumerated in the Constitution. For this reason, many of these amendments restrict the ability of Congress to exercise power not enumerated by the Constitution.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The most effective tools for limiting Congress to the restriction of their enumerated powers are a constitutional court, the states and limits to the "Spending Clause". The constitutional court would involve a panel of judges whose sole job is to review every piece of legislation to insure it is in full compliance with the Constitution. At the same time, a supermajority of the states would have limited powers to nullify laws they deem unconstitutional.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Limiting government spending to its constitutionally enumerated powers should never even be a question which needs to come up. Yet the issue has risen its head since the days of the Founding and debates between Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians. That debate continues to this day and needs to be addressed by the Constitution rather than judicial interpretation.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Along with the limited power to nullify laws, the repeal of the 17th Amendment would help to restore the proper balance between the states and the national government which has, over time, rendered the states to a level of subservience to the national government. That was never the intent of the federal system the Founders created. The states were always deemed by the Founders to be checks on the power of the national government. But today they are little more than political subdivisions.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">There are also provisions to bring about fiscal sanity through three mechanisms. First, the spending power of Congress is limited to only enumerated powers and the open ended phrase "common good" is eliminated. Second, the ability to borrow money is also severely limited. Third, the 16th Amendment authorizing the income tax is repealed.<br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">There is a restriction on the power of Congress to make war. As discussed, the war making powers of the presidency have enabled the usurpation of power that creates the Imperial Presidency. This creates a necessity to restrict that ability while at the same time, allowing the necessary authority to defend against attack. To achieve this, there is a requirement for a supermajority and there is a time limit for any declaration of war. Also, Congress is prohibited from enacting anything other than a declaration of war for the use of aggressive military force.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Finally, there is an interpretative amendment for future courts. Rather than allow future courts to use their individual means of interpreting the Constitution, there is an amendment which defines how the Constitution is to be interpreted. </span><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: times;">Freedom Amendments </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">I. Every
law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject,
and that shall be expressed in the title.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">II. The
Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises
to pay the debts and general operation of the government and provide for the
common defense of the United States, provided two-thirds of each house of
Congress approves, and two-thirds of each House of Congress approves any bill
for increasing revenue, and the spending authority of Congress shall be limited
to specific enumerated powers in this Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">III. The
Congress shall have power to borrow money on the credit of the United States
provided two-thirds of each House of Congress approves.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">IV. Congress
shall have no authority to make any law to interfere in the commerce of the
people of the United States or law impairing the obligation of contracts or to
mandate actions by any individual including those in furtherance of any
economic or commercial policy; to abridge the freedom of production, commerce
and the voluntary and free exchange of goods and services or to create, or
engage in, any business, professional, commercial, financial or industrial
enterprise.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">V. The
Congress shall have power to declare war, provided two-thirds of each House of
Congress approves, and every declaration of war shall expire one year
thereafter unless two-thirds of each House of Congress shall authorize an
additional year, each year thereafter. Congress shall have no power to
authorize an act of war <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">by any bill, order, resolution or vote other than a declaration</span> of war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will
not admit of delay, according to law.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">VI. The
Head of State<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">A.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
President of the United States shall be the head of state of the United States.
He shall hold his office during one term of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">B.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be elected, as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
Legislature of each state shall appoint a number of electors, equal to the
whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state may be entitled
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office
of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for
President; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and
of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to
the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those
voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately,
by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be
taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which
they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United
States.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">4.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">No
person except a natural born citizen shall be eligible to the office of
President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
resident within the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">5.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
President shall not be a member of Congress or of the legislature of any state
nor shall the President hold any other office of profit or trust of the United
States or any of the several states for a period of five years before his
election.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">C.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation,
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other
emolument from the United States, or any of them.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">D.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">Before
he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or
affirmation: "I do solemnly swear
(or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the
United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States."<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the President of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall designate the principal officer who shall execute the laws of
the United States and appoint the other principal officers of the executive
departments on the basis of the vote of confidence of the House of
Representatives with the exception of the officer charged with the administration
of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall have power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and
pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
shall appoint judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts and councilors of the
Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be commander in chief of the defense forces of the United
States, and of the organized militia of the several states, when called into
the actual service of the United States. The command of the defense forces of
the United States shall be exercised by the head of government.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers and heads of
state.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall commission all the officers of the United States.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">8. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">The President shall
recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement and </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"> a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">cts of
bravery and heroism.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">F.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
President and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from
office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, other high
crimes and misdemeanors, or other behavior that renders them unfit for office.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a name="_Hlk79786273"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">G.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">Whenever the President transmits to the
Head of Government his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the
powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written
declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the
President of the Senate as Acting President.<o:p></o:p></span></span></a></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">H.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">In case of the removal of the President
from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the President of the
Senate until a new President is chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">VII. The
President of the Senate shall be chosen by the executive authorities of the
several states before noon on the third day of January in the years in which a
new class of Senators is chosen but following the election of Representatives.
Within these time limits, voting shall be by ballot and shall continue until
one person shall have attained a majority of the votes. Ballots shall be
tabulated by a judge of the Supreme Court or any inferior court in the presence
of the Senate.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">VIII. The
Head of Government<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">A.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">The principal officer chosen by the President to execute the laws of the
United States shall be the head of government. No individual shall hold the
office of two executive departments simultaneously nor shall the head of government
hold any other appointed office.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">B.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">Duties of the head of government <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">1.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">The head of government shall take care
that the laws be faithfully executed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">2.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">The head of government shall give to the
Congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their
consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">The head of government shall have power,
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided
two thirds of the Senators concur.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">4.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">The head of government shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, and all other officers of the United
States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which
shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment
of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Head of Government
alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.</span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">5.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 107%;">The head of government may require the
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective
offices.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: times;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span style="line-height: 107%;">D.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall remain in office during the pleasure of the House of
Representatives and subject to the limits of all Representatives to remain in
office.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">IX. The
several states may nullify any law of the United States, whenever three-fifths
of the legislatures of the several states choose to nullify such law. This must
occur within eighteen months of the enactment of the law as defined in Article
I.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">X. This Constitution,
and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof;
shall adhere to and be interpreted as the organization of the natural right of
lawful defense. It is the substitution of a common force for individual forces
and this common force is to do only what the individual forces have a natural
and lawful right to do: to protect persons, liberties, and properties; to
maintain the right of each.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">XI. The
sixteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby
repealed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span>XII. <o:p></o:p></span></span>The Senate of the United States shall be composed of three Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, with a power reserved to a two-thirds majority of each legislature to recall its Senators, or any of them; and each State shall have one vote in the Senate except in trials of impeachment when each Senator shall have one vote. They shall be divided equally into three classes, each class composed of one member of each state delegation so that one third may be chosen every second year.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 107%;">XIII. Each
state shall have at least three Representatives; and until such enumeration
shall be made, shall be apportioned in accordance with the most recent census. No state shall create a legislative district
with fewer than three Representatives. Representatives shall be chosen in
accordance with the principle of proportional representation.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">XIV. Every
bill, order or resolution, declarations of war notwithstanding, which shall
have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall be presented to
the Constitutional Council of the United States. The Constitutional Council
shall only determine if the bill is in full compliance with all the articles of
this Constitution and any amendments thereto. If it approves, the Constitutional
Council shall transmit the bill to the President but if not, the Constitutional
Council shall return it, with its objections to that House in which it shall
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and
proceed to reconsider it. No bill shall be presented to the President of the
United States without the approval of the Constitutional Council of the United
States. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">Every bill which shall have approval from the
Constitutional Council, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
President of the United States; if he approves, he shall sign it, but if not,
he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed
to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration a majority of that House shall
agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the
other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by a
majority of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes
of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within
ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same
shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by
their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">XV. The
judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court
consisting of no more than nine judges who shall serve no more than thirty
years, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall, for
the thirty-year duration of their term, hold their offices during good
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"><span style="line-height: 107%;">The judges of the Supreme Court shall appoint the officer in charge of
executing the administration of justice for the United States. The officer in
charge of executing the administration of justice shall hold his office during one
term of ten years.</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;">XVI. <a name="_Hlk82542314">The Constitutional Council shall consist of no more than nine
councilors who shall serve no more than thirty years. Constitutional Council
members shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated
times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be
diminished during their continuance in office. The decisions of the
Constitutional Council shall not be considered by the President when deciding
to reject or sign any bill, the several states when deciding to nullify any law,
or any decision of the Supreme or inferior courts. The principle of stare
decisis shall not apply to any decision of the Constitutional Council. <o:p></o:p></a></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;">XVII. Congress shall have no authority to provide
any money to any state or engage with any state to perform any policy, program
or other service.</span><span style="font-family: times; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p><p style="text-align: center;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: times;"> </span></p>
<p><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-4292575625179568692021-07-21T20:50:00.035-05:002022-08-22T20:16:04.448-05:00A New Constitution?<p><span style="font-family: arial;">Who among us understands the unlimited nature of the US government despite the fact the Constitution was written with the intent to not only frame the government but to limit its authority by enumerating only certain defined powers? In other words, it has failed to accomplish one of its primary goals. As Lysander Spooner once wrote "<span style="background-color: white;">But whether the Constitution really be one thing, or another, this much is certain - that it has either authorized such a government as we have had, or has been powerless to prevent it. In either case it is unfit to exist.”</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial;">With that in mind, it seems we, the American people ought to consider the causes of the problem which is a government of almost limitless power. And once we find those causes to do what we are able to restore the limits on the government that are necessary for maximizing human liberties and freedom. For as things stand, government no longer functions as an instrument for securing our rights but has instead become Santa Clause.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: arial;">We often equate democratic government with liberty and freedom but in practice, democracy has led us down a path of legalizing plunder and creating injustice. Democratic governance is good for certain tasks but as Professor Leland B. Yeager once wrote "...democracy is not the sort of thing of which more is necessarily better...". The Founders of our country wrote a document which attempted to embody both democratic principle as well as elements which mitigated its worst aspects. They recognized the same truth Professor Yeager observed and created a framework which, over time, has become eroded.<br /><br />The erosion of their original framework combined with certain flaws that allowed the growth of the size and power of the government are in need of being corrected. One of the flaws must include the combination of the roles of head of state and head of government in the same person, the President. The result is what has now come to be known as an imperial presidency with powers in the hands of presidents which few monarchs ever possessed.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial;">Rather than suggest multiple amendments to the original Constitution, it might be time to consider the alternative solution of rewriting the entire document to incorporate the necessary restrictions on the government and create a framework which does not allow as much power in the hands of the executive as exists now. With that in mind, I propose the following as a complete rewrite of the Constitution:</span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;">Revision
of the United States Constitution</span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We, the people of the several states, each state
acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a more
perfect federation of states, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility
and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Legislature<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
legislative powers herein delegated shall be vested in a Congress of the United
States, which shall consist of a House of Representatives and a Senate. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year
by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state
legislature.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five
years and been seven years a citizen of the United States and who shall not,
when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Representatives
shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this
federation, according to their respective numbers. The actual enumeration shall
be made every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as Congress shall by
law direct. Each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, shall be apportioned as exists.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">When
vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority
thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and
shall have the sole power of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate of the United States shall be composed of three Senators from each state,
chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, <span style="background: white;">with a power reserved to a two-thirds majority of each
legislature to recall its Senators, or any of them</span>; and each state shall
have one vote in the Senate except in trials of impeachment when each Senator
shall have one vote.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Immediately
after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall
be divided equally into three classes, each class composed of one member of
each state delegation so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if
vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature
of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years,
and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the Senate shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the Senate shall be chosen by the executive authorities of the
several states before noon on the third day of January in the years in which a
new class of Senators is chosen but following the election of Representatives. Within
these time limits, voting shall be by ballot and shall continue until one
person shall have attained a majority of the votes. Ballots shall be tabulated
by a judge of the Supreme Court or any inferior court in the presence of the
Senate. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in
the absence of the President of the Senate, or when the President of the Senate
shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments of persons holding any
office of profit or trust under of the United States. When sitting for that purpose,
they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States
is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and <a name="_Hlk107406422">no office
holder shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members
present.<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Judgment
in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office
and once removed, disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust
or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless
be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according
to law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives
shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof. Congress shall
not make or alter any regulation in any state respecting the places and manner
of holding elections for Senators or Representatives unless the legislature of
such state shall neglect or refuse to make laws or regulations for the purpose,
or from any circumstance be incapable of making the same; and then only until
the legislature of such state shall make such provision; provided that Congress
may prescribe the day for the election of Representatives.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall
begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a
different day.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its
own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business;
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to
compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties
as each House may provide.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for
disorderly behavior and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services,
to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States.
They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be
privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their
respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other
place.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be
appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which
shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased
during such time: and no person holding any office under the United States,
shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House shall keep a journal of its proceedings and from time to time and at
least once per annum, publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any
question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Neither
House, during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other,
adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the
two Houses shall be sitting.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and
Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall
have intervened.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but
the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill, order or resolution, declarations of war notwithstanding, which shall
have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall be presented to
the Constitutional Council of the United States. The Constitutional Council
shall only determine if the bill is in full compliance with all the articles of
this Constitution and any amendments thereto. If it approves, the
Constitutional Council shall transmit the bill to the President but if not, the
Constitutional Council shall return it, with its objections to that House in
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on
their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the Constitutional Council, shall, before
it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he
approves, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections
to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections
at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
reconsideration a majority of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall
be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by a majority of that House, it shall
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be
determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and
against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If
any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law,
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment
prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of
Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be
presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take
effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be
repassed by a majority of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject,
and that shall be expressed in the title.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall have limited enumerated powers <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish means for allowing the people to voluntarily engage in activity that
provides revenue for the United States, and establish fees, charges and excises
to defray all the expenses of general services provided by law, but revenues
from such fees, charges and excises shall not exceed the expense and
maintenance of the services provided;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
borrow money on the credit of the United States provided three-fourths of each House
of Congress approves;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform rules of citizenship, immigration and naturalization;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United
States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
fix the standard of weights and measures based only on the International System
of Units;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><a name="science_and_useful_arts"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To promote</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> the
progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors
and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and
offenses against the law of nations;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare the punishment of espionage, insurrection and treason, but no attainder
of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life
of the person attainted;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare war, provided two-thirds of each House of Congress approves, and every
declaration of war shall expire one year thereafter unless two-thirds of each
House of Congress shall authorize an additional year, each year thereafter;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on
land, air and water in the event war shall have been declared;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
raise and support defense forces, but no appropriation of money to that use
shall be for a longer term than two years; and</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">standing armies,
in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty and therefore ought to be avoided,
as far as the circumstances and protection of the community will admit; and in
all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed
by, the civil power;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for the defense of the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make rules for the government and regulation of the defense forces of the
United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for calling forth the organized militia to execute the laws of the federation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for arming and disciplining the organized militia and for governing
such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States,
reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the
authority of training the organized militia according to the discipline
prescribed by Congress;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such nonresident
District (not exceeding five kilometers square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the
government of the United States; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory
or other property belonging to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make all laws which shall be both necessary and proper for carrying into
execution only the foregoing enumerated powers, and all other enumerated powers
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall have no authority<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
pass a bill of attainder or ex post facto law;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
lay a tax or duty on articles exported from any state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
give preference by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be
obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
draw money from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law;
and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public
money shall be published from time to time and at least once per annum;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant titles of nobility by the United States with the exceptions defined in
Article VIII: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them,
shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument,
office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any foreign state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make laws respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedoms of thought and speech, or of the press or written word; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
government for a redress of grievances;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law defining a criminal act with the exceptions enumerated in Article
I, Section R;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
authorize an act of war by any bill, order, resolution or vote other than a
declaration of war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will
not admit of delay, according to law;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
institute compulsory service to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
call forth the unorganized militia to execute the laws of the federation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law to interfere in the interstate commerce of the people of the
United States or law impairing the obligation of contracts or to mandate
actions by any individual including those in furtherance of any economic or
commercial policy;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and free exchange
of goods and services;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial, financial or
industrial enterprise;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide any money to any state or engage with any state to perform any policy,
program or other service;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
coin money, <a name="_Hlk76075958">regulate the value thereof and of foreign
coin</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Head of State<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the United States shall be the head of state of the United States.
He shall hold his office during one term of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be elected, as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l43 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
legislature of each state shall appoint a number of electors, equal to the
whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state may be entitled
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office
of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l43 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for
President; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and
of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to
the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from
the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those
voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately,
by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be
taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states,
and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which
they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United
States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person except a natural born citizen shall be eligible to the office of
President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
resident within the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall not be a member of Congress or of the legislature of any state
nor shall the President hold any other office of profit or trust of the United
States or any of the several states for a period of five years before his
election.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation,
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other
emolument from the United States, or any of them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Before
he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or
affirmation: "I do solemnly swear
(or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the
United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the President of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall have power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and
pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
shall appoint ambassadors, judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts and
councilors of the Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be commander in chief of the defense forces of the United
States, and of the organized militia of the several states, when called into
the actual service of the United States. The command of the defense forces of
the United States shall be exercised by the head of government.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
states wherein the principle officer charged with executing the law of the
state is chosen by the legislature of the state or either house of the state
legislature, the President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and
consent of two-thirds of said state legislature, shall appoint the Governor for
that state. The Governor shall be the head of state for the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers and heads of
state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall commission all the officers of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President and all civil officers of the United States <a name="_Hlk107406395">shall
be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery,
other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other behavior that renders them unfit
for office.<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><a name="_Hlk79786273"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Whenever
the President transmits to the Head of Government his written declaration that
he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he
transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties
shall be discharged by the President of the Senate as Acting President.<o:p></o:p></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In Case of the removal of the President
from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the President of the
Senate until a new President is chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Head of Government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall choose from among its members the principle
officer and such principle officers of each of the executive departments as
shall execute the laws of the United States with the exception of the officer charged
with the administration of justice. No individual shall hold the principle
office of two executive departments simultaneously nor shall the principle
officer hold any other appointed office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
principle officer chosen by the House of Representatives to execute the laws of
the United States shall be the head of government. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the head of government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall give to the Congress information of the state of the federation,
and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary
and expedient.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senate concurs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, shall appoint all other officers of the United States, whose appointments
are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law:
but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as
they think proper, in the Head of Government alone, in the courts of law, or in
the heads of departments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the Traditional
Leaders, upon any subject relating to customary law within traditional
communities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the
duties of their respective offices.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l41 level2 lfo31; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall remain in office during the pleasure of the House of
Representatives and subject to the limits of all Representatives to remain in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Judiciary<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court
consisting of no more than nine judges who shall serve no more than thirty
years, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall, for
the thirty-year duration of their term, hold their offices during good
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judges of the Supreme Court shall appoint the officer in charge of executing
the administration of justice for the United States. The officer in charge of
executing the administration of justice shall hold his office during one term
of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, including those
brought by citizens to challenge acts of Congress which are contrary to this
Constitution including the unlawful expenditure of funds, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to
controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies
between two or more states;--between citizens of different states, and between
citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any
suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States
by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those
in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original
jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and
under such regulations as the Congress shall make.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such
trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been
committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Treason
against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or
in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be
convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt
act, or on confession in open court.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
bill referred to its originating House by the Constitutional Council shall be
reviewed by the Supreme Court or inferior courts. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
warrants shall issue, <a name="_Hlk77626787">but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation</a>, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No person shall be held to answer for an
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except
in cases arising in the defense forces, or in the organized militia, when in
actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject
for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property, nor for the same
overt act be subject to be put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property
other than by the state or district where the said crimes shall have been
committed but in no other jurisdiction; nor shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of liberty, or property,
without due process of law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
assistance of counsel for his defense.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In suits at common law the right of trial by
jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
reexamined in any court of the United </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">States, than according to
the rules of the common law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Bail
shall not be imposed but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation
of alleged violence committed by the accused or upon due process of law, nor
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">V.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Constitutional Council<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Constitutional
Council shall consist of no more than nine councilors who shall serve no more
than thirty years. Constitutional Council members shall, for the duration of
their term, hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated
times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be
diminished during their continuance in office. The decisions of the
Constitutional Council shall not be considered by the President when deciding
to reject or sign any bill, the several states when deciding to nullify any law
or any decision of the Supreme or inferior courts. The principle of stare
decisis shall not apply to any decision of the Constitutional Council. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VI.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Full
faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and
judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws
prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be
proved, and the effect thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens
in the several states and no state shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of each state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall
flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the
executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be
removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of
marque and reprisal; coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin;
emit bills of credit; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility with the
exceptions defined in Article VIII.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports
or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its
inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United
States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the
Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops,
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with
another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually
invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall interfere in the legal commerce of the people of the state, or any
other state, or mandate actions by any individual in furtherance of any
economic or commercial policy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial,
financial or industrial enterprise.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms except in
consequence to a conviction for an infamous crime or upon an adjudication of
incapacity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deprive any person of liberty, or property, without due process of
law. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of
the laws.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and
free exchange of goods and services.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">New
states may be admitted by the Congress into this federation; but no new state
shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state
be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without
the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the
Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Nothing
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the
United States, or of any particular state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
United States shall guarantee to every state in this federation a representative
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application
of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be
convened) against domestic violence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
several states may nullify any law of the United States, whenever three-fifths
of the legislatures of the several states choose to nullify such law. This must
occur within eighteen months of the enactment of the law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power,
jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Constitution forbidden or
expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
such states wherein the Governor is appointed by the President, the powers of
the Governor shall be those of a head of state. The powers of the Governors as
head of state will be defined by the states but shall include the following.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">have
power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and pardons for offenses
against the state, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the legislature,
shall appoint judges of the state Courts and councilors of any state
Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the state legislature, shall, before it
become a law, be presented to the Governor; if he approves, he shall sign it,
but if not, he shall return it, with his objections to the legislature, which
shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider
it. If after such reconsideration a majority of the legislature shall
agree to pass the bill, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes
of the legislature shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of the
legislature. If any bill shall not be returned by the Governor within ten days
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be
a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the legislature by their
adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo44; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Governors
appointed by the President shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of, treason, bribery, other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other
behavior that renders them unfit for office by the legislature of the state. No
office holder shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the
members of the legislative body empowered to try impeachments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VII.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Amendments,
alterations or abolishing in whole or in part<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, or on the
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall
propose to amend, alter or abolish this Constitution in whole or in part,
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of
this Constitution, when ratified by a two thirds majority of each of the legislatures
of three fourths of the several States within ten years of its submission to
the states; provided that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of
its equal suffrage in the Senate.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">VIII. Traditional Leaders<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Traditional
Leaders are any person who, in terms of customary law of the traditional
community concerned, holds a traditional leadership position.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
community may be recognized as a traditional community if it is subject to a
system of traditional leadership in terms of the customs of that community, and
observes a system of customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
institution, status and role of traditional leadership, according to customary
law, are recognized, subject to the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
traditional authority that observes a system of customary law may function
subject to Congress and customs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the
Constitution and any legislation specific to customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall provide a role for traditional leadership as an institution to deal with
matters relating to traditional leadership, the role of traditional leaders,
customary law and the customs of communities observing a system of customary
law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress and the states may provide for the establishment of houses of
traditional leaders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">IX. <a name="_Hlk73103365">Additional Provisions<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this
Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this
Constitution, as under the previous Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance
thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of
the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in
every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of
any state to the contrary notwithstanding. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in
pursuance thereof; shall be interpreted as the organization of the natural
right of lawful defense. It is the substitution of a common force for
individual forces and this common force is to do only what the individual
forces have a natural and lawful right to do: to protect persons, liberties,
and properties; to maintain the right of each.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state
legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United
States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to
support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification
to any office or public trust under the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Slavery
shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Neither
the United States nor any state shall have the authority or power to deprive
any person of their right to life as punishment for any criminal act.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any state on account of sex, race, color, previous
condition of servitude or ability to engage in activity that provides revenue
for the United States or the states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people of the several states.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l34 level1 lfo39; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">X.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Ratification<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
ratification by <span style="background: white;">a two-thirds
majority of each legislature of</span> the states shall be sufficient for the
establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Fifteen
years after the date of ratification of this Constitution, all laws in
existence before its ratification shall expire except revenue laws which shall
expire fifty years after ratification. In the thirty-five year interim,
Congress shall eliminate all debts contracted and engagements entered into
before the adoption of this Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Revision
of the United States Constitution</span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We, the people of the several states, each state
acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a more
perfect federation of states, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility
and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Legislature<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
legislative powers herein delegated shall be vested in a Congress of the United
States, which shall consist of a House of Representatives and a Senate. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year
by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state
legislature.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five
years and been seven years a citizen of the United States and who shall not,
when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Representatives
shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this
federation, according to their respective numbers. The actual enumeration shall
be made every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as Congress shall by
law direct. Each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, shall be apportioned as exists.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">When
vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority
thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and
shall have the sole power of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate of the United States shall be composed of three Senators from each state,
chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, <span style="background: white;">with a power reserved to a two-thirds majority of each
legislature to recall its Senators, or any of them</span>; and each state shall
have one vote in the Senate except in trials of impeachment when each Senator
shall have one vote.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Immediately
after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall
be divided equally into three classes, each class composed of one member of
each state delegation so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if
vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature
of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years,
and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the Senate shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the Senate shall be chosen by the executive authorities of the
several states before noon on the third day of January in the years in which a
new class of Senators is chosen but following the election of Representatives. Within
these time limits, voting shall be by ballot and shall continue until one
person shall have attained a majority of the votes. Ballots shall be tabulated
by a judge of the Supreme Court or any inferior court in the presence of the
Senate. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in
the absence of the President of the Senate, or when the President of the Senate
shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments of persons holding any
office of profit or trust under of the United States. When sitting for that purpose,
they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States
is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and <a name="_Hlk107406422">no office
holder shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members
present.<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Judgment
in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office
and once removed, disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust
or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless
be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according
to law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives
shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof. Congress shall
not make or alter any regulation in any state respecting the places and manner
of holding elections for Senators or Representatives unless the legislature of
such state shall neglect or refuse to make laws or regulations for the purpose,
or from any circumstance be incapable of making the same; and then only until
the legislature of such state shall make such provision; provided that Congress
may prescribe the day for the election of Representatives.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall
begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a
different day.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its
own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business;
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to
compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties
as each House may provide.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for
disorderly behavior and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services,
to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States.
They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be
privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their
respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other
place.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be
appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which
shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased
during such time: and no person holding any office under the United States,
shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
House shall keep a journal of its proceedings and from time to time and at
least once per annum, publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any
question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Neither
House, during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other,
adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the
two Houses shall be sitting.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and
Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall
have intervened.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but
the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill, order or resolution, declarations of war notwithstanding, which shall
have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall be presented to
the Constitutional Council of the United States. The Constitutional Council
shall only determine if the bill is in full compliance with all the articles of
this Constitution and any amendments thereto. If it approves, the
Constitutional Council shall transmit the bill to the President but if not, the
Constitutional Council shall return it, with its objections to that House in
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on
their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the Constitutional Council, shall, before
it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he
approves, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections
to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections
at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
reconsideration a majority of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall
be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by a majority of that House, it shall
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be
determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and
against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If
any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law,
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment
prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of
Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be
presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take
effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be
repassed by a majority of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject,
and that shall be expressed in the title.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall have limited enumerated powers <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish means for allowing the people to voluntarily engage in activity that
provides revenue for the United States, and establish fees, charges and excises
to defray all the expenses of general services provided by law, but revenues
from such fees, charges and excises shall not exceed the expense and
maintenance of the services provided;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
borrow money on the credit of the United States provided three-fourths of each House
of Congress approves;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform rules of citizenship, immigration and naturalization;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United
States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
fix the standard of weights and measures based only on the International System
of Units;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><a name="science_and_useful_arts"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To promote</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> the
progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors
and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and
offenses against the law of nations;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare the punishment of espionage, insurrection and treason, but no attainder
of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life
of the person attainted;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
declare war, provided two-thirds of each House of Congress approves, and every
declaration of war shall expire one year thereafter unless two-thirds of each
House of Congress shall authorize an additional year, each year thereafter;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on
land, air and water in the event war shall have been declared;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
raise and support defense forces, but no appropriation of money to that use
shall be for a longer term than two years; and</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">standing armies,
in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty and therefore ought to be avoided,
as far as the circumstances and protection of the community will admit; and in
all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed
by, the civil power;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for the defense of the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make rules for the government and regulation of the defense forces of the
United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for calling forth the organized militia to execute the laws of the federation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide for arming and disciplining the organized militia and for governing
such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States,
reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the
authority of training the organized militia according to the discipline
prescribed by Congress;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such nonresident
District (not exceeding five kilometers square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the
government of the United States; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory
or other property belonging to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l40 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make all laws which shall be both necessary and proper for carrying into
execution only the foregoing enumerated powers, and all other enumerated powers
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo19; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall have no authority<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
pass a bill of attainder or ex post facto law;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
lay a tax or duty on articles exported from any state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
give preference by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be
obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
draw money from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law;
and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public
money shall be published from time to time and at least once per annum;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
grant titles of nobility by the United States with the exceptions defined in
Article VIII: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them,
shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument,
office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any foreign state;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make laws respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedoms of thought and speech, or of the press or written word; <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
government for a redress of grievances;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law defining a criminal act with the exceptions enumerated in Article
I, Section R;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
authorize an act of war by any bill, order, resolution or vote other than a
declaration of war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will
not admit of delay, according to law;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
institute compulsory service to the United States;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
call forth the unorganized militia to execute the laws of the federation,
suppress insurrections and repel invasions;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
make any law to interfere in the interstate commerce of the people of the
United States or law impairing the obligation of contracts or to mandate
actions by any individual including those in furtherance of any economic or
commercial policy;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and free exchange
of goods and services;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial, financial or
industrial enterprise;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
provide any money to any state or engage with any state to perform any policy,
program or other service;<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To
coin money, <a name="_Hlk76075958">regulate the value thereof and of foreign
coin</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Head of State<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President of the United States shall be the head of state of the United States.
He shall hold his office during one term of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be elected, as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l43 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
legislature of each state shall appoint a number of electors, equal to the
whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state may be entitled
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office
of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l43 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for
President; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and
of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to
the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from
the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those
voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately,
by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be
taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states,
and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which
they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United
States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
person except a natural born citizen shall be eligible to the office of
President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
resident within the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l30 level1 lfo22; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall not be a member of Congress or of the legislature of any state
nor shall the President hold any other office of profit or trust of the United
States or any of the several states for a period of five years before his
election.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation,
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other
emolument from the United States, or any of them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Before
he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or
affirmation: "I do solemnly swear
(or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the
United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States."<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the President of the United States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall have power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and
pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
shall appoint ambassadors, judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts and
councilors of the Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall be commander in chief of the defense forces of the United
States, and of the organized militia of the several states, when called into
the actual service of the United States. The command of the defense forces of
the United States shall be exercised by the head of government.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
states wherein the principle officer charged with executing the law of the
state is chosen by the legislature of the state or either house of the state
legislature, the President shall nominate, and by and with the advice and
consent of two-thirds of said state legislature, shall appoint the Governor for
that state. The Governor shall be the head of state for the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers and heads of
state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall commission all the officers of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level4 lfo28; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
President and all civil officers of the United States <a name="_Hlk107406395">shall
be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery,
other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other behavior that renders them unfit
for office.<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><a name="_Hlk79786273"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Whenever
the President transmits to the Head of Government his written declaration that
he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he
transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties
shall be discharged by the President of the Senate as Acting President.<o:p></o:p></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In Case of the removal of the President
from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the President of the
Senate until a new President is chosen.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Head of Government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
House of Representatives shall choose from among its members the principle
officer and such principle officers of each of the executive departments as
shall execute the laws of the United States with the exception of the officer charged
with the administration of justice. No individual shall hold the principle
office of two executive departments simultaneously nor shall the principle
officer hold any other appointed office. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
principle officer chosen by the House of Representatives to execute the laws of
the United States shall be the head of government. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo27; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Duties
of the head of government<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall give to the Congress information of the state of the federation,
and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary
and expedient.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senate concurs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, shall appoint all other officers of the United States, whose appointments
are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law:
but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as
they think proper, in the Head of Government alone, in the courts of law, or in
the heads of departments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the Traditional
Leaders, upon any subject relating to customary law within traditional
communities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo30; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the
duties of their respective offices.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l41 level2 lfo31; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
head of government shall remain in office during the pleasure of the House of
Representatives and subject to the limits of all Representatives to remain in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Judiciary<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court
consisting of no more than nine judges who shall serve no more than thirty
years, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall, for
the thirty-year duration of their term, hold their offices during good
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judges of the Supreme Court shall appoint the officer in charge of executing
the administration of justice for the United States. The officer in charge of
executing the administration of justice shall hold his office during one term
of ten years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, including those
brought by citizens to challenge acts of Congress which are contrary to this
Constitution including the unlawful expenditure of funds, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to
controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies
between two or more states;--between citizens of different states, and between
citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any
suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States
by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those
in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original
jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and
under such regulations as the Congress shall make.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such
trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been
committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Treason
against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or
in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be
convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt
act, or on confession in open court.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
bill referred to its originating House by the Constitutional Council shall be
reviewed by the Supreme Court or inferior courts. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no
warrants shall issue, <a name="_Hlk77626787">but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation</a>, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No person shall be held to answer for an
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except
in cases arising in the defense forces, or in the organized militia, when in
actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject
for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property, nor for the same
overt act be subject to be put in jeopardy of the loss of liberty or property
other than by the state or district where the said crimes shall have been
committed but in no other jurisdiction; nor shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of liberty, or property,
without due process of law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
assistance of counsel for his defense.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">In suits at common law the right of trial by
jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
reexamined in any court of the United </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">States, than according to
the rules of the common law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Bail
shall not be imposed but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation
of alleged violence committed by the accused or upon due process of law, nor
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">V.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Constitutional Council<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Constitutional
Council shall consist of no more than nine councilors who shall serve no more
than thirty years. Constitutional Council members shall, for the duration of
their term, hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated
times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be
diminished during their continuance in office. The decisions of the
Constitutional Council shall not be considered by the President when deciding
to reject or sign any bill, the several states when deciding to nullify any law
or any decision of the Supreme or inferior courts. The principle of stare
decisis shall not apply to any decision of the Constitutional Council. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VI.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
States<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Full
faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and
judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws
prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be
proved, and the effect thereof.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens
in the several states and no state shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of each state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall
flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the
executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be
removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of
marque and reprisal; coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin;
emit bills of credit; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility with the
exceptions defined in Article VIII.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports
or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its
inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United
States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the
Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops,
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with
another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually
invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall interfere in the legal commerce of the people of the state, or any
other state, or mandate actions by any individual in furtherance of any
economic or commercial policy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall create, or engage in, any business, professional, commercial,
financial or industrial enterprise.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the right of the people to keep and bear arms except in
consequence to a conviction for an infamous crime or upon an adjudication of
incapacity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deprive any person of liberty, or property, without due process of
law. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of
the laws.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">No
state shall abridge the freedom of production, commerce and the voluntary and
free exchange of goods and services.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">New
states may be admitted by the Congress into this federation; but no new state
shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state
be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without
the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the
Congress.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Nothing
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the
United States, or of any particular state.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">O.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
United States shall guarantee to every state in this federation a representative
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application
of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be
convened) against domestic violence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
several states may nullify any law of the United States, whenever three-fifths
of the legislatures of the several states choose to nullify such law. This must
occur within eighteen months of the enactment of the law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Q.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Each
state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power,
jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Constitution forbidden or
expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo16; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
such states wherein the Governor is appointed by the President, the powers of
the Governor shall be those of a head of state. The powers of the Governors as
head of state will be defined by the states but shall include the following.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">have
power to grant reprieves, commutations, exonerations and pardons for offenses
against the state, except in cases of impeachment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the legislature,
shall appoint judges of the state Courts and councilors of any state
Constitutional Council.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Governor shall recognize individuals or groups for extraordinary achievement
and acts of bravery and heroism.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l27 level1 lfo43; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Every
bill which shall have approval from the state legislature, shall, before it
become a law, be presented to the Governor; if he approves, he shall sign it,
but if not, he shall return it, with his objections to the legislature, which
shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider
it. If after such reconsideration a majority of the legislature shall
agree to pass the bill, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes
of the legislature shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of the
legislature. If any bill shall not be returned by the Governor within ten days
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be
a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the legislature by their
adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo44; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Governors
appointed by the President shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of, treason, bribery, other high crimes and misdemeanors, or other
behavior that renders them unfit for office by the legislature of the state. No
office holder shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the
members of the legislative body empowered to try impeachments.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l42 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">VII.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Amendments,
alterations or abolishing in whole or in part<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, or on the
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall
propose to amend, alter or abolish this Constitution in whole or in part,
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of
this Constitution, when ratified by a two thirds majority of each of the legislatures
of three fourths of the several States within ten years of its submission to
the states; provided that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of
its equal suffrage in the Senate.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">VIII. Traditional Leaders<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Traditional
Leaders are any person who, in terms of customary law of the traditional
community concerned, holds a traditional leadership position.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
community may be recognized as a traditional community if it is subject to a
system of traditional leadership in terms of the customs of that community, and
observes a system of customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
institution, status and role of traditional leadership, according to customary
law, are recognized, subject to the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A
traditional authority that observes a system of customary law may function
subject to Congress and customs.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
courts must apply customary law when that law is applicable, subject to the
Constitution and any legislation specific to customary law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Congress
shall provide a role for traditional leadership as an institution to deal with
matters relating to traditional leadership, the role of traditional leaders,
customary law and the customs of communities observing a system of customary
law.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo42; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Congress and the states may provide for the establishment of houses of
traditional leaders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; tab-stops: 40.5pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">IX. <a name="_Hlk73103365">Additional Provisions<o:p></o:p></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">All
debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this
Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this
Constitution, as under the previous Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance
thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of
the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in
every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of
any state to the contrary notwithstanding. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This
Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in
pursuance thereof; shall be interpreted as the organization of the natural
right of lawful defense. It is the substitution of a common force for
individual forces and this common force is to do only what the individual
forces have a natural and lawful right to do: to protect persons, liberties,
and properties; to maintain the right of each.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state
legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United
States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to
support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification
to any office or public trust under the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">E.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Slavery
shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">F.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Neither
the United States nor any state shall have the authority or power to deprive
any person of their right to life as punishment for any criminal act.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any state on account of sex, race, color, previous
condition of servitude or ability to engage in activity that provides revenue
for the United States or the states. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people of the several states.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l34 level1 lfo39; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">X.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Ratification<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
ratification by <span style="background: white;">a two-thirds
majority of each legislature of</span> the states shall be sufficient for the
establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo35; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Fifteen
years after the date of ratification of this Constitution, all laws in
existence before its ratification shall expire except revenue laws which shall
expire fifty years after ratification. In the thirty-five year interim,
Congress shall eliminate all debts contracted and engagements entered into
before the adoption of this Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></p><p></p>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-31550484645955291322021-03-26T11:23:00.000-05:002021-03-26T11:23:16.169-05:00Nashville has declared war on affordable housing<a href="http://www.adisgruntledrepublican.com/2020/09/nashville-has-declared-war-on.html#.YF4KVMv6AJs.blogger">Nashville has declared war on affordable housing</a>Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-48878800987092691042020-08-11T21:28:00.002-05:002020-08-19T12:01:38.182-05:00Police Reform for Nashville<p><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
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/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
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mso-para-margin-top:0in;
mso-para-margin-right:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:8.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
line-height:107%;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:11.0pt;
font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif;
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
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<p class="MsoNoSpacing">“Defund the police” has become the clarion call of some
but not among the vast majority of Americans, especially, African Americans.
Two polls taken in late June and early July, 2020 found strong support for law
enforcement with 73% opposing abolition of police in one poll<a href="#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[i]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meanwhile, Gallup found that 81 percent of
African Americans support either the same amount or an increased police
presence in their communities.<a href="#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Defunding the
police is clearly not a solution to problems faced by law enforcement, many of
which are the result of poor government policy which is then thrust on law
enforcement to handle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Better ideas and better
solutions need to be discussed and vetted for implementation rather than just imposing
an unpopular solution which clearly lacks public support despite what a loud
minority would have us believe.<br />
<br />
There are solutions which can begin to correct the problems facing law
enforcement. Some of the solutions may in fact incorporate a few of the ideas
proposed by advocates which change responsibility for certain activities away
from a law enforcement responsibility to that of non-law enforcement agencies. </p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Reform #1 The Drug War<br />
</b><br />
The War on Drugs might be the worst public policy implemented since 1970 for
several reasons. Confining those to current events and specifically to racial
discord is difficult because of the pervasiveness the drug war has on every
aspect of criminal justice. For that reason, I will attempt to confine this
discussion to the impact of policing the drug war and its disparate impact on
minorities by quoting an aide to President Nixon, John Ehrlichman.<br />
<br />
“The Nixon campaign in 1968, and the Nixon White House after that, had two
enemies: the antiwar left and black people. You understand what I'm saying? We
knew we couldn't make it illegal to be either against the war or black, but by
getting the public to associate the hippies with marijuana and blacks with
heroin, and then criminalizing both heavily, we could disrupt those
communities. We could arrest their leaders, raid their homes, break up their
meetings, and vilify them night after night on the evening news. Did we know we
were lying about the drugs? Of course we did.”<a href="#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></span></a></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span>As Abolitionist
Lysander Spooner wrote, “It is a maxim of the law that there can be no crime
without a criminal intent; that is, without the intent to invade the person or
property of another.”<a href="#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[iv]</span></span></span></span></a> To make vices crimes and
with the racial intent of the law, the result has been devastating on the
African American community. For example, In 2014, African Americans constituted
2.3 million, or 34%, of the total 6.8 million correctional population.<a href="#_edn5" name="_ednref5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[v]</span></span></span></span></a> Worse, Black males ages 18
to 19 were 12.7 times as likely to be imprisoned as white males of the same
ages, the highest black-to-white racial disparity of any age group in 2018.<a href="#_edn6" name="_ednref6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: bevel; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[vi]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When African Americans see these type of
disparities, is it any wonder why they demand reform?<br />
<br />
Unless police are willing to stop prosecuting the war on drug, effectively
creating a de facto treatment of drugs like that of Portugal’s de jure
decriminalization of drugs, perhaps the next best approach is something called</span>
Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) a program which enables officers to
divert individuals who commit crimes due to drug addiction to specially trained
case managers. These case managers coordinate addiction and mental health
treatment, shelter, housing, health care, counseling, bureaucracy, and
employment. Evaluations have shown that LEAD reduces recidivism, felony crime,
homelessness, and unemployment, while improving citizen perceptions of the
police<span style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-color-alt: windowtext; mso-effects-shadow-align: topleft; mso-effects-shadow-alpha: 40.0%; mso-effects-shadow-angledirection: 2700000; mso-effects-shadow-anglekx: 0; mso-effects-shadow-angleky: 0; mso-effects-shadow-color: black; mso-effects-shadow-dpidistance: 1.5pt; mso-effects-shadow-dpiradius: 3.0pt; mso-effects-shadow-pctsx: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-pctsy: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-themecolor: dark1; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: flat; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">.<a href="#_edn7" name="_ednref7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black; font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-effects-shadow-align: topleft; mso-effects-shadow-alpha: 40.0%; mso-effects-shadow-angledirection: 2700000; mso-effects-shadow-anglekx: 0; mso-effects-shadow-angleky: 0; mso-effects-shadow-color: black; mso-effects-shadow-dpidistance: 1.5pt; mso-effects-shadow-dpiradius: 3.0pt; mso-effects-shadow-pctsx: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-pctsy: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-themecolor: dark1; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: flat; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[vii]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
</span>Mental health diversion programs like Miami-Dade’s Criminal Mental
Health Project (CMHP) dispatch specially trained officers to emergency calls
that may involve mentall illness. These officers bring in offenders for mental
health evaluation, safely diverting many from jail to support services that include
medication, counseling, housing, and help navigating government bureaucracy.
CMHP has been shown to significantly reduce recidivism, incarceration, and
criminal justice spending<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-effects-shadow-align: topleft; mso-effects-shadow-alpha: 40.0%; mso-effects-shadow-angledirection: 2700000; mso-effects-shadow-anglekx: 0; mso-effects-shadow-angleky: 0; mso-effects-shadow-color: black; mso-effects-shadow-dpidistance: 1.5pt; mso-effects-shadow-dpiradius: 3.0pt; mso-effects-shadow-pctsx: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-pctsy: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-themecolor: dark1; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: flat; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">.<a href="#_edn8" name="_ednref8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-effects-shadow-align: topleft; mso-effects-shadow-alpha: 40.0%; mso-effects-shadow-angledirection: 2700000; mso-effects-shadow-anglekx: 0; mso-effects-shadow-angleky: 0; mso-effects-shadow-color: black; mso-effects-shadow-dpidistance: 1.5pt; mso-effects-shadow-dpiradius: 3.0pt; mso-effects-shadow-pctsx: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-pctsy: 100.0%; mso-effects-shadow-themecolor: dark1; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-align: center; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-compound: simple; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dash: solid; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-dpiwidth: .75pt; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-join: round; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-linecap: flat; mso-style-textoutline-outlinestyle-pctmiterlimit: 0%; mso-style-textoutline-type: none;">[viii]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
</span><b>Reform # 2</b><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></b><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sever
the relationship between crime labs and law enforcement </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Within the
current legal system, it is often difficult to challenge the analysis of a
police crime lab, even for the defense. Although the word “forensic” derives
from the Latin word for the forum, where citizens congregated to dispute public
questions, modern forensic science is anything but public or adequately open to
dispute. The forensics lab holds an effective monopoly on the analysis of the
evidence presented to it. The lab’s scientist is free to infer from the
evidence without being second-guessed. The forensic worker, therefore, has
power.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While the vast
majority of forensic scientists wield this power fairly and competently, a few
do not. The proper function of forensic science is to extract the truth.
According, however, to a study in 2001: <br />
<br />
“As it is practiced today, forensic science does not extract the truth
reliably. Forensic science expert evidence that is erroneous (that is, honest
mistakes) and fraudulent (deliberate misrepresentation) has been one of the
major causes, and perhaps the leading cause, of erroneous convictions of
innocent persons.”<a href="#_edn9" name="_ednref9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In
the wake of DNA exonerations, an extensive literature has developed on the
limited reliability of forensic testimony. The institutional structure of
forensic work is an important source of error, insufficiency, and occasionally,
malfeasance. Our adversarial criminal courts organize disputes between
the prosecution and the defense. But the current institutional structure of
forensic science places the results of forensic scientists largely beyond dispute.
<br />
<br />
In its report to Congress the National Academy of Sciences explains: “Forensic
scientists who sit administratively in law enforcement agencies or prosecutors’
offices, or who are hired by those units, are subject to a general risk of
bias.” That is why it is time to change the relationship between crime labs and
law enforcement. <br />
<br />
Forensic labs are often organized within police departments and are thus
dependent on the departments for their budgets. This institutional relationship
creates a pro-prosecution bias, as the managers of forensics units answer to
law enforcement agencies. For example, David Williams, an investigator in the
Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Explosives Unit, was found to have
“tailored” his testimony “to the most incriminating result” in two trials,
namely, the prosecutions for the World Trade Center bombing of 1993 and the
Oklahoma City bombing of 1995. In the Oklahoma case, “Williams repeatedly
reached conclusions that incriminated the defendants without a scientific basis
and that were not explained in the body of the report.”<a href="#_edn10" name="_ednref10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
“Scientific…assessment conducted in forensic investigations should be
independent of law enforcement efforts either to prosecute criminal suspects or
even to determine whether a criminal act has indeed been committed.
Administratively, this means that forensic scientists should function
independently of law enforcement administrators. The best science is conducted
in a scientific setting as opposed to a law enforcement setting. Because
forensic scientists often are driven in their work by a need to answer a
particular question related to the issues of a particular case, they sometimes
face pressure to sacrifice appropriate methodology for the sake of expediency.”<a href="#_edn11" name="_ednref11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Removing forensic service providers
from administrative oversight by law enforcement (to include prosecutor’s
offices) addresses the “fox guarding the hen house” issue. Those responsible
for acting on the jurisdiction’s or defendant’s behalf in court are not in
charge of the neutral arbiter of facts that support or refute criminal
allegations. The implication is not that all law enforcement oversight of
laboratory functions is biased but that—purely based on mandated
responsibilities—the potential for that particular brand of bias is greater
than if the laboratories were independent. Other types of bias may occur but,
as an independent agency, the laboratory can at least act on them without
collateral repercussions and resistance due to professional cultural
differences.<br />
<br />
<b>Reform # 3 Demilitarize the Police<br />
</b><br />
This subject matter is discussed in greater depth in an essay about the MNPD,
here: <a href="https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2020/06/police-militarization-from-nashville.html">https://libertyseekingrebel.blogspot.com/2020/06/police-militarization-from-nashville.html</a><br />
<br />
<b>Reform # 4 Warrant service<br />
</b><br />
Forced entry and no-knock warrants are almost exclusively executed in
furtherance of the War on Drugs and represent one more reason why the War on
Drugs is such a dangerously bad policy. The killing of Breonna Taylor in
Louisville, KY was a result of a no-knock warrant.<a href="#_edn12" name="_ednref12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span></span></span></a>
A truly meaningful reform would bar <i>any </i>forced entry into a
private residence unless the police have reason to suspect someone inside
presents an imminent threat to others, such as an active shooter, a kidnapping
or a robbery in progress.<br />
<br />
<b>Reform # 5 Public Sector Employee Unions<br />
</b><br />
In the current climate, it is easy to attack police unions for their protection
of bad officers. But the truth is, as a city government, Metro cannot treat one
collective bargaining unit different from others. In other words, if the FOP is
to be excluded from certain aspects of negotiations, then the MNEA and SEIU
must be treated in the same manner. Any Council member who fails to recognize
the necessity for equal treatment of all these groups is setting the city up
for civil liability.<br />
<br />
With that in mind, research on the subject is helpful. A 2019 study from
the researchers at the University of Chicago analyzed violent police incidents
following a 2003 Florida Supreme Court decision that granted sheriffs' deputies
the right to organize. This sophisticated analysis compares agencies with newly
granted collective-bargaining rights with other police agencies that already
had such rights. "(T)he right to bargain collectively led to about a
40-percent increase in violent incidents," the report concludes.<a href="#_edn13" name="_ednref13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span></span></span></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This type of data
cannot be ignored and must be addressed by limiting the areas in which the
police collective bargaining unit can negotiate with the city. Police unions
have made it impossible for police chiefs to reform their departments, get rid
of the small number of thugs within their midst, root out police corruption and
privatize services.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reform # 6<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>OPA vs COB</span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
If anyone has not done so, I strongly urge all to read the packet released by
Silent No More TN and its founder, former MNPD sex abuse detective and Master
Patrol Officer Greta McClain. It describes many issues within the department,
chief of which appears to be a lack of internal control. Having read the rather
long letter attached to the report by some anonymous source with detailed
knowledge of the internal problems within the department, it is time to
consider some major changes to the way complaints are handled.<a href="#_edn14" name="_ednref14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
For many years, the Office of Professional Accountability handled all major
complaints against officers. Since its creation, it operated under the
leadership of a civilian but its investigators were sworn officers. It was believed
this would create a perception that those who investigated officers were
somewhat separated from the officers they investigated. However, as years
passed, the citizens of Nashville believed this to be an insufficient means of
police oversight and in a county-wide referendum chose to create a Community
Oversight Board. The result has been conflict between the MNPD and the COB, a
lack of direction for the COB which led it down a path of decades old cases and
COB being left out of active situations. The time is ripe for Metro government
to take some action beyond that which the referendum calls for and move to a
different approach of the investigation of complaints.<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to first understand how the process works now. A complaint
which goes to OPA for investigation is assigned to investigators who then
compile testimony and evidence to complete a report which is then reviewed by
their supervisors and ultimately by the director of OPA. The report will detail
the findings of the investigation and then present a recommendation to the
Chief of Police. The findings of the report may exonerate the officer, sustain
the complaint, find a problem with departmental policy and fail to sustain the
complaint. In a case where the officer faces any type of disciplinary action,
the officer may request a hearing before the Chief’s Review Board. The final determination
of the case is for the Chief of Police.<br />
<br />
With that in mind, and with the report included in the Silent No More packet,
it appears to be time to transfer all major complaints to the COB and to
abolish the OPA and the Chief’s Review Board. If this is done, additional
investigative resources will be needed equal to the number of investigators
working in OPA. The result of this would be to have civilian, non-police
investigators conducting investigations of allegations of violations of
department policy and those investigations would then be presented to the Chief
of Police for final disposition. The COB would act as the hearing board in the
same manner the Chief’s Review Board currently acts but any final determination
would still rest with the Chief of Police based on the recommendation of the
COB. Minor complaints ought to still be handled by immediate supervisors or the
investigators of the COB will be overwhelmed with minor complaints. The
findings of the immediate supervisors can also be taken to the COB for a hearing
on the supervisor’s recommendation at the discretion of the officer against
whom the complaint was made.</span></p><p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Conclusion</b> <br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">These six
recommendations are not comprehensive but would go a long way toward
reconciling the legitimate goals of law enforcement with the citizens it must
protect. Other changes which might also be considered, if legal, would be to forbid
civil asset forfeiture without a criminal charge related specifically to the
property being seized and abolishing bonds for non-violent misdemeanors or at
the very least, require the use of a misdemeanor citations for all non-violent misdemeanors.
Taken as whole, these reforms are in keeping with the wishes of the voters of
Davidson County and reflect polling indicating the desire for police to do as
much if not more to protect their lives and property.</span></p><div style="mso-element: endnote-list;"><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/vgqowgynze/econTabReport.pdf">https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/vgqowgynze/econTabReport.pdf</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/316571/black-americans-police-retain-local-presence.aspx">https://news.gallup.com/poll/316571/black-americans-police-retain-local-presence.aspx</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a> <i><a href="https://harpers.org/author/danbaum/">"Dan Baum – Harper's
Magazine"</a>. harpers.org. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730230827/https:/harpers.org/author/danbaum/">Archived</a>
from the original on July 30, 2017. Retrieved July 30, 2017</i></p>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref4" name="_edn4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></span></span></span></a> from,
Spooner, Lysander “Vices Are Not Crimes: A Vindication of Moral Liberty (1875)</p>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref5" name="_edn5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://www.naacp.org/criminal-justice-fact-sheet/">https://www.naacp.org/criminal-justice-fact-sheet/</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref6" name="_edn6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://drugwarfacts.org/chapter/race_prison">https://drugwarfacts.org/chapter/race_prison#</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref7" name="_edn7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="http://leadkingcounty.org/lead-evaluation/">http://leadkingcounty.org/lead-evaluation/</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref8" name="_edn8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></span></span></span></a>
<a href="http://www.miamiherald.com/news/health-care/article79004057.html">http://www.miamiherald.com/news/health-care/article79004057.html</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref9" name="_edn9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span></span></span></a> Michael
J. Saks, et al., “Model Prevention and Remedy of Erroneous Convictions Act,” Arizona
State Law Journal, vol. 33, 2001</p>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref10" name="_edn10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span></span></span></a> United
States Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, The FBI
Laboratory: An Investigation into Laboratory Practices and Alleged Misconduct
in Explosives-Related and Other Cases (http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/97-04a/index.htm,
1997)</p>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref11" name="_edn11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span></span></span></a> National
Research Council. 2009. <i>Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States:
A Path Forward</i>. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press at 23-24.<span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref12" name="_edn12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/06/30/fact-check-police-had-no-knock-warrant-breonna-taylor-apartment/3235029001/">https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/06/30/fact-check-police-had-no-knock-warrant-breonna-taylor-apartment/3235029001/</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref13" name="_edn13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span></span></span></a>
Dharmapala, Dhammika and McAdams, Richard H. and Rappaport, John, Collective
Bargaining Rights and Police Misconduct: Evidence from Florida (August 2019).
University of Chicago Coase-Sandor Institute for Law & Economics Research
Paper No. 831, U of Chicago, Public Law Working Paper No. 655, Available at
SSRN: <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3095217" target="_blank">https://ssrn.com/abstract=3095217</a> or <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3095217" target="_blank">http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3095217</a></p>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<p class="MsoEndnoteText"><a href="#_ednref14" name="_edn14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span face="" style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span></span></span></a> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1D1IH-eTMWkPDetZCNhT5szWlwKQRirQS/view?fbclid=IwAR3aBogkVZoGSN2unHdyYSz7lKuovFxyWKeMQfYYzXHRkr63r6NoHBlYaGw">https://drive.google.com/file/d/1D1IH-eTMWkPDetZCNhT5szWlwKQRirQS/view?fbclid=IwAR3aBogkVZoGSN2unHdyYSz7lKuovFxyWKeMQfYYzXHRkr63r6NoHBlYaGw</a></p>
</div>
</div>
Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-86178606174954596802020-06-18T21:11:00.002-05:002020-06-19T14:01:46.901-05:00Police Militarization from a Nashville perspective
<p class="MsoNormal">One of the observations people make about the modern state of law enforcement is police are becoming more militarized. But when someone says
the police are “overmilitarized” what immediately comes to mind is police using
heavily armored vehicles and officers suited up in riot gear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the reality of policing is more nuanced
and personal. In truth, the riot gear almost never comes out of the trunk of
the car and armored vehicles are used at events like Nashville’s Night Out about as much as in dangerous situations.<br />
<br />
So what then are people talking about? Yes, these items contribute to the
perception of a militarized police but it is my experience that the little
things are what make a difference. The little things change public perceptions
and they change the police mindset, both for the worse.<br />
<br />
Metro Police uniforms are one of those little things. Until about fifteen years
ago, the MNPD uniform was the standard uniform we saw Officers Reed and Malloy
wearing on Adam-12: the dark blue shirt and pants with a white crew-neck shirt
underneath.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But that has changed, and
the changes are one of those “little things”.<br />
<br />
You will see officers still wearing the same dark blue shirt and pants but now,
they have changed the color of the crew neck undershirt from white to black.
You might say to yourself, “so what, white, black, who cares?” I would suggest
this small change does two things:<br />
1) It changes public perception, and<br />
2) it represents a change in police attitude<br />
<br />
The public may not recognize the change immediately but when we see men wearing
all-black carrying guns, certain thoughts come to mind. Research by the Bill Blackwood Law
Enforcement Management Institute of Texas supports this assertion:<br />
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 40px; text-align: left;">
The impression clothing makes is vitally important when determining what
perception an agency wants to portray, police administrators must be mindful
that the psychological benefits of utilizing the traditional police uniform far
outweigh a military styled uniform, and this should be the preferred choice
when determining what the best option is for a standard uniform. The importance
of this choice has been studied in the psychological and sociological fields
and should not be dismissed as unimportant or irrelevant.<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">
Among police, the change represents a change in attitude of one’s role from that of
the “guardian” to that of the “warrior”. The “warrior” mentality has been well
documented in research such as a <a href="https://harvardlawreview.org/2015/04/law-enforcements-warrior-problem/">Harvard</a>
study which found that mentality creates tension between the public and police and
results in antagonized relations between the police and the people they serve.
As that study concluded “[w]e can resolve that tension and improve policing, in
part, by replacing the concept of the police warrior with that of the guardian
officer.”<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
Years ago, now retired East Sector Captain Danny Baker used to comment on the
rise of this mentality when he saw his officers wearing black leather gloves
even while sitting at roll-calls. He would mention in passing that the gloves were
one of those “little things” that help form public opinion and represent the
mentality of the officers as the warrior rather than the guardian. He never
used those words but he was always trying to convey the concern. He understood
the result of those little things that we now describe as an overmilitarization
of police.<br />
<br />
Where to go from here? I think the place to begin is with the “little things”
as I call them. Police need to change how they are perceived and how they
perceive themselves. We can talk about the big stuff to our legislators and
change policies and procedures but we have to start with the small stuff and we
can begin that today.<br clear="all" />
</p><div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Helvetica",sans-serif; font-size: 8.0pt;">Quill, Patrick, August 2016. The Police Uniform and Its
Impact on Public Perception, The Bill Blackwood Law Enforcement Management
Institute of Texas, </span><a href="https://shsu-ir.tdl.org/handle/20.500.11875/2163"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Helvetica",sans-serif; font-size: 8.0pt;">https://shsu-ir.tdl.org/handle/20.500.11875/2163</span></a><span style="background: white; color: #333333; font-family: "Helvetica",sans-serif; font-size: 8.0pt;">, [accessed 16 June 2020]</span><span style="font-size: 8.0pt;"></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> <span style="font-family: "Helvetica",sans-serif; font-size: 8.0pt;">Prescott, J., Starr,
S., Stoughton, S., Prescott, J. and Starr, S., 2015. <i>Law Enforcement's
'Warrior' Problem</i>. [online] Harvardlawreview.org. Available at:
<https://harvardlawreview.org/2015/04/law-enforcements-warrior-problem/>
[Accessed 16 June 2020].</span></p>
</div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
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<![endif]-->Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-88238373544213688312020-01-10T21:22:00.001-06:002020-06-19T14:17:16.141-05:00US Healthcare Overview<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Single payer advocates
typically use two primary arguments to support a single payer system:<br />
1) The US system is more expensive per patient than single payer systems, and<br />
2) Health outcomes are better for those in single payer systems</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">It is necessary to
understand these issues before coming to the conclusion a single payer system
will correct these problems. <br />
<br />
In truth, health outcomes in the United States are far better than those of
single payer nations. Further, the cost of care in the United States is the
result of government interventions for over a century. The difference is the
single payer systems have the means to control expenses through the rationing of
care. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Every government-run
healthcare system around the world rations care to control costs. In Great
Britain, the National Institute on Clinical Effectiveness makes such decisions,
including a controversial determination that certain cancer drugs are “too expensive.”
The government effectively puts a price tag on each citizen’s life—some $44,305
per year, to be exact. That’s just a baseline, of course, and, as the British
Institute’s chairman, Michael Rawlins, points out, the agency has at times
approved treatments costing as much as $70,887 per year of extended life. But
these are approved only if it can be shown they extend life by at least three
months and are used for illnesses that affect fewer than 7,000 new patients per
year.<br />
<br />
This is the reality of socialized medicine. But the mercantile system in the US
is little better as noted in this quote describing the problems with the US
system:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Both the current
public and private insurance systems main techniques for holding down costs are
practicing third party rationing by limiting the services covered, price
controls by constraining payments to providers, and shifting costs to patients.
But given the system's fragmentation and perverse incentives, much
cost-effective care is squeezed out, resources are increasingly allocated to
costly, inefficient and opaque administrative and regulatory procedures and
central organizational overgrowth with un-necessary and in-efficient
micro-management of physicians rather than medical need. The system wastes
money on unnecessary premium care workups for all patients, and inappropriate
use of expensive technology. Other inefficiencies include information failures,
inefficient moral hazard issues, adverse selection, distorted incentives,
inflated hospital and pharmaceutical pricing and cost shifting. Many attainable
efficiencies are not achieved. We also use medicines and technologies that cost
a lot for little or no marginal health benefit. Administrative expenses are
high, and enormous sums are squandered in efforts to game the system. Given the
mercantile emphasis on production and the ignored consumer it is no wonder that
between one fifth and one third of medical outlays do nothing to improve
health.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[i]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">So, what then is the
answer to this? More government, the same government which created the US
system we have now? "What? The US did not create our healthcare
system", you are probably saying. Indeed it did and is described in this <a href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=114045132"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">article</span></a>.
But managed care and our current single payer government systems, Medicare and
Medicaid, are not fixing what is broken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Cookbook medicine does not contain costs. All current cost containment
strategies are failing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">For a more detailed
explanation of how government created the system we have, it started about 100
years ago with medical licensing laws which created a crony relationship
between the American Medical Association (AMA) and government which removed
competition from within the medical community. Dr. Michel Accad, M.D. describes
this in detail in his healthcare blog, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/alertandoriented.com"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">alertandoriented.com</span></a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In it, he describes the transition of
healthcare following the Flexner Report in 1910. He goes into detail concerning
the results of the report:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The
main effect of the report was to change public and political opinion about
medical education and to influence the implementation of strict licensing laws.
The change in sentiment was facilitated by the political and financial
influence of organizations such as the Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller
Foundation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">In
the wake of the report, and under the lobbying efforts of the AMA,
states rapidly established medical acts to regulate the issuance of medical
licenses. Henceforth, licenses would only be given to graduates of
schools that met criteria set forth by the Flexner report. Those
medical schools would have to be accredited by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaison_Committee_on_Medical_Education" target="_blank">Liaison Committee on Medical Education</a>, a joint
venture of the AMA and its close ally, the American Association of Medical
Colleges.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">From
an economic standpoint, what happened next was a period of severe medical
price inflation which occurred quickly and dramatically. The situation
was so serious that in 1925, a national Committee on the Costs of Medical Care
(CCMC) was organized to address the question.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The
CCMC was also funded by the Carnegie Corporation and by a number of other
private foundations, such as the Rockefeller Foundation. The
committee received material assistance from the AMA, the American
Hospital Association, and other leading professional organizations, as well as
from many government agencies, including the National Bureau of Economic
Research. Numerous reports were issued over the next few years, and
those were compiled in 1932 into a large volume entitled <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022" target="_blank"><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The Costs of Medical Care</span></i></a>.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">The
CCMC confirmed that the costs of medical care had risen dramatically in the
prior years. The committee also found that health care
disparities had increased, with access to medical care in rural and poor areas
being particularly problematic.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Coinciding with the
Flexner Reforms was the active effort by the government to terminate the
relationship people </span><span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">had with
mutual assistance organizations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mutual
assistance organizations used to be a source for primary care for working poor
across the country. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lodge practice was
the means by which doctors provided primary care to members of these
organizations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Removing primary care as
a benefit to lodge membership, by making lodge practice illegal, forced people
to pay for care out of pocket. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">"Lodge
practice" refers to an arrangement, reminiscent of today's HMOs, whereby a
particular society or lodge would contract with a doctor to provide medical
care to its members. The doctor received a regular salary on a retainer basis,
rather than charging per item; members would pay a yearly fee and then call on
the doctor's services as needed. If medical services were found unsatisfactory,
the doctor would be penalized, and the contract might not be renewed.<br />
<br />
</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Most remarkable was the low cost at which these medical services
were provided. At the turn of the century, the average cost of "lodge
practice" to an individual member was between <i>one and two dollars a
year.</i> A day's wage would pay for a year's worth of medical care. By
contrast, the average cost of medical service on the regular market was between
one and two dollars <i>per visit.</i> Yet licensed physicians, particularly
those who did not come from "big name" medical schools, competed
vigorously for lodge contracts, perhaps because of the security they offered;
and this competition continued to keep costs low.<br />
<br />
The response of the medical establishment, both in America and in Britain, was
one of outrage; the institution of lodge practice was denounced in harsh
language and apocalyptic tones. Such low fees, many doctors charged, were
bankrupting the medical profession. Moreover, many saw it as a blow to the
dignity of the profession that trained physicians should be eagerly bidding for
the chance to serve as the hirelings of lower-class tradesmen. It was
particularly detestable that such uneducated and socially inferior people should
be permitted to set fees for the physicians' services, or to sit in judgment on
professionals to determine whether their services had been satisfactory. The
government, they demanded, must do something.</span><br />
</div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">And so it did. In
Britain, the state put an end to the "evil" of lodge practice by
bringing health care under political control. Physicians' fees would now be
determined by panels of trained professionals (<i>i.e., </i>the physicians
themselves) rather than by ignorant patients. State-financed medical care edged
out lodge practice; those who were being forced to pay taxes for
"free" health care whether they wanted it or not had little incentive
to pay extra for health care through the fraternal societies, rather than using
the government care they had already paid for.</span><br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In America, it
took longer for the nation's health care system to be socialized, so the
medical establishment had to achieve its ends more indirectly; but the
essential result was the same. Medical societies like the AMA imposed sanctions
on doctors who dared to sign lodge practice contracts. This might have been
less effective if such medical societies had not had access to government
power; but in fact, thanks to governmental grants of privilege, they controlled
the medical licensure procedure, thus ensuring that those in their disfavor
would be denied the right to practice medicine. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Such licensure
laws also offered the medical establishment a less overt way of combating lodge
practice. It was during this period that the AMA made the requirements for
medical licensure far more strict than they had previously been. Their reason,
they claimed, was to raise the quality of medical care. But the result was that
the number of physicians fell, competition dwindled, and medical fees rose; the
vast pool of physicians bidding for lodge practice contracts had been
abolished. As with any market good, artificial restrictions on supply created
higher prices — a particular hardship for the working-class members of
fraternal societies.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a>
</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Then, along comes
WWII and government policies which connected health insurance with one's
employer and began the 3rd party payer system we have made into law with ACA.</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
<br />
</span><span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">It started with wartime wage freezes.
Employers desperate to entice employees used health insurance benefits as an
enticement since wages were frozen by law.</span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[iv]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> After the war, the tax code was altered to
give tax benefits to employers for providing health insurance.</span></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn5" name="_ednref5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[v]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So,
what happens over time is that individual ownership of health insurance
policies ownership slows or stops while simultaneously premiums and costs begin
to go up. Why? Because now insurance pays for everything and the user does not
even pay for the insurance. Prices are the means of communicating value, but
with healthcare, prices are irrelevant as a result of the 3rd party payer
system. This </span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pl3LwMGFAFM"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">video</span></a></span><span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> briefly describes the problem.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Because
insurance companies are — partly — obligated to pay for any expenses of their
customers, and the inability of customers to establish what the real prices of
their services provided are — something readily available in a real free market
— prices are able to rise far beyond what would be the case in a free market
with functioning price signals. Because governments, through taxation, pay for
the largest part of these health insurance schemes, we as consumers are not
aware of the total costs of these medical services. This lack of awareness in
turn contributes to the possibilities of rising prices for medical services.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn6" name="_ednref6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[vi]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">But
then, what happens when one needs to change jobs for better money or
whatever...fine, if you are healthy but not if you are sick. Voila, the
pre-existing condition problem. Again, the result of employer provided
insurance which had been incentivized by government wage and tax policy. So,
what happens when one retires from all but a handful of the largest employers
which have healthcare plans for retirees? Since the insurance was employer
provided and not individually owned, no more insurance at retirement. Add to
this the expense at that point of trying to obtain insurance, which at 65 is
not cheap, and you have the need for Medicare. Again, a problem caused by
government.</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
<br />
<span class="textexposedshow">So along comes the HMO law the brainchild of Ted
Kennedy</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn7" name="_ednref7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[vii]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow">. "Combined with Medicare, the HMO Act eventually
eliminated the market for affordable individual health insurance".</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn8" name="_ednref8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[viii]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Within 20 years
of that law, the system is hopelessly damaged and the 3rd party payer system is
the rule. Do not also forget the prices of policies are forced up by numerous
mandates by both the states and federal government.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn9" name="_ednref9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[ix]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow"> Pricing for medical services is almost universally based
on Medicare pricing</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn10" name="_ednref10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[x]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow"> and policy pricing is regulated by the states</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn11" name="_ednref11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xi]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="textexposedshow">. Thus, bureaucrats have decided what the value of a
medical service will be, not the market and there is no pricing mechanism to
transmit information.</span><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span class="textexposedshow"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">ACA
made the 3rd party payer system, which was already failing, into law by
mandating employers offer those benefits. In other words, ACA doubled down on
failure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">ACA creates an illusion of having elements of the free
market in the form of the exchanges and when the system begins to fail, as it
is now, the blame can be laid on the failure of markets so as to usher in a
single payer system.<br />
<br />
One of the big justifications used by many advocating a single payer system is that
in single payer countries, the health of the people is better. Health outcomes
in those countries are in fact not better than those in the United States.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">For example, life
expectancies are affected by exogenous factors such as violent crime, poverty,
obesity, tobacco and drug use, and other issues unrelated to health care. As
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development explains, “It is
difficult to estimate the relative contribution of the numerous nonmedical
and medical factors that might affect variations in life expectancy across
countries and over time.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn12" name="_ednref12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xii]</span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
Similarly, infant mortality, a common measure in cross-country comparisons, is
highly problematic. In the United States, very low birth-weight infants have a
much greater chance of being brought to term with the latest medical
technologies. Some of those low birth-weight babies die soon after birth, which
boosts our infant mortality rate, but in many other Western countries, those
high-risk, low birth-weight infants are not included when infant mortality is
calculated.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn13" name="_ednref13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xiii]</span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
When you compare the outcomes for specific diseases, the United States clearly
outperforms the rest of the world. Whether the disease is cancer, pneumonia,
heart disease, or AIDS, the chances of a patient surviving are far higher in
the United States than in other countries. For example, according to a study published
in the British medical journal The Lancet, the United States is at the top of
the charts when it comes to surviving cancer. Among men, roughly 62.9 percent
of those diagnosed with cancer survive for at least five years.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn14" name="_ednref14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xiv]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
The news is even better for women: the five year-survival rate is 66.3 percent,
or two thirds. The countries with the next best results are Iceland for men
(61.8 percent) and Sweden for women (60.3 percent). Most countries with
national health care fare far worse.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn15" name="_ednref15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn15;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xv]</span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
Moreover, the United States drives much of the innovation and research on
health care worldwide. Eighteen of the last 25 winners of the Nobel Prize in
Medicine are either U.S. citizens or individuals working here.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn16" name="_ednref16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn16;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xvi]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
U.S. companies have developed half of all new major medicines introduced
worldwide over the past 20 years.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn17" name="_ednref17" style="mso-endnote-id: edn17;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xvii]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
In fact, Americans played a key role in 80 percent of the most important medical
advances of the past 30 years.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn18" name="_ednref18" style="mso-endnote-id: edn18;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xviii]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
Advanced medical technology is far more available in the United States than in
nearly any other country.<br />
<br />
By the same token, not only do thousands of foreign-born doctors come to the
United States to practice medicine, but foreign pharmaceutical companies
fleeing taxes, regulation, and price controls are increasingly relocating to
the United States.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn19" name="_ednref19" style="mso-endnote-id: edn19;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; vertical-align: baseline;">[xix]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
In many ways, the rest of the world piggybacks on the U.S. system.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Health and medicine
present unique challenges but non-coercive measures are best able to address
these challenges. A comprehensive functional market-based system is far better
positioned to match resources without price controls or rationing care. A market-based
system suffers far less of the feast-or-famine misallocation of resources
driven by our current mercantile system. It also saves huge sums that our
current system wastes on administration, physician micro-management, billing,
excessive executive compensation, and risk selection signing up only the
healthy and wealthy leaving the sick and poor to be paid at the maximum rate by
the American taxpayer.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[i]</span></span></span></span></a> <span class="selectable"><span style="color: black;">Lanzalotti, M.D., J. (2011). <i>Jeffersonian
Health Policy Foundation -Single Payer vs. Market System</i>. [online]
Jhpf.org. Available at: http://www.jhpf.org/research/healthcare/singlepayer.asp
[Accessed 10 Jan. 2020].</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></a> <span class="selectable"><span style="color: black;">Accad, M.D., M. (2015). <i>An
economic history of the American health care system-Part 1 | Alert &
Oriented</i>. [online] Alert & Oriented. Available at:
http://alertandoriented.com/an-economic-history-of-the-american-health-care-system-part-1/
[Accessed 10 Jan. 2020].</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a> <span class="selectable"><span style="color: black;">Long, R. (1993). <i>How Government
Solved the Health Care Crisis</i>. [online] Freenation.org. Available at:
http://www.freenation.org/a/f12l3.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2020].</span></span></div>
</div>
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</div>
Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4551862050475559022.post-43574391275289069132020-01-03T16:00:00.002-06:002020-06-19T15:04:04.421-05:00State Actions to Reduce Healthcare Costs<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The State of Tennessee is attempting to expand access to care for more people. </span></span><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Medicaid expansion or a single-payer system and other subsidies will increase demand for healthcare when people perceive it as a "free" service. Meanwhile, regulations and laws restrict the ability of the market to supply that increased demand.</span></span> The result will always be increased prices. To control costs, governments will be forced to ration care, as all government-run healthcare system do.<br /><br />Therefore, rather than increasing prices, allowing the supply of medical care to grow will have the opposite effect, allowing for more access to healthcare for more people.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">In order to achieve this goal, Tennessee can enact five reforms which are demonstrated to reduce costs and increase access to healthcare.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
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mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
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<![endif]-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Expand telemedicine to embrace technology and
innovation which are leading the way towards drastically reducing patients
costs while increasing patient access—particularly for those who are low-income
or living in rural areas.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 24.3pt 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Compelling evidence shows that telemedicine does work for a wide range of
conditions if the process is structured in a smart way. And the health care
system will only get better at utilizing telemedicine. Better software
platforms to manage telemedicine and changes to the patient interaction
process, e.g. making it more asynchronous, promise improvements. Entrepreneurs
and startups are leading the way here.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 24.3pt 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Second, the economics of telemedicine are compelling for providers.
Telemedicine visits tend to be shorter than office visits, so provider time is
used more effectively. The overhead required to support telemedicine visits is
also less: office space, receptionists, and data collection time. From my work
with a primary care provider organization, I’m convinced that about half of
primary care visits can be accomplished by telemedicine at about 2x the
productivity of office visits. This can go a long way to alleviate the shortage
of primary care providers and help hold down the cost of medical care.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[i]</span></span></span></span></a></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Reduce existing state-level mandates so that Tennessee insurers can
begin offering plans that give patients more affordable and customized options
that fit their individual needs.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 0.4in 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">While a single health benefit mandate may only increase premium rates between
$50 and $700 dollars annually per employee depending on the plan type and
coverage, the accumulation of multiple health benefit mandates can result in a
significant increase in the cost of health insurance benefits for small
business employers and employees. Even at the lowest annual increase of $50, 20
mandates will result in an increase in premium costs of at least $1,000
annually.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 0.4in 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b>Authorize Health Savings Accounts
(HSAs) within the TennCare program. In doing so, we provide those low-income
Tennesseans with more options to make cost-conscious and individualized
decisions that improve their financial and healthcare outcomes, while also
addressing concerns over ballooning state costs.<b><span style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><span style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;">Eliminate Certificate of Need
(CON) laws</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Tennessee, in detail:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/tennessee_state_profile.pdf">https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/tennessee_state_profile.pdf</a></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 0.4in 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The weight of evidence suggests
that a full repeal of CON laws would expand access to healthcare in Tennessee
that is of both high quality <i><span style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">and</span></i> low cost.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Given the substantial evidence that CON laws do not achieve their stated goals,
one may wonder why these laws continue to exist in so much of the country. The
explanation seems to lie in the special-interest theory of regulation.
Specifically, CON laws perform a valuable function for incumbent providers of
healthcare services by limiting their exposure to new competition. Indeed,
recent evidence suggests that special interest groups are able to use political
donations to increase the odds that their CON requests will be granted. This
aspect of CON laws helps explain why economists as well as antitrust
authorities have long argued that these regulations are anti-competitive and
harmful to consumers.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-language-override: normal; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Eliminate professional licensing in medicine and
leave education, credentialing, and scope-of-practice decisions entirely to the
private sector and the courts. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin: 0in 0.4in 0in 1in;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Medical licensure fails to meet
expectations in the area of discipline and consumer protection. State medical boards’
disciplinary efforts can arguably be said to protect clinicians more than
consumers. Many actions against clinicians are settled privately and after
extended periods of time. Clinicians who have faced disciplinary actions often
continue to practice, with no public disclosure of the reasons for the sanction.
The persistent difference between the promise of licensing and its actual
performance is summarized by one long-time observer of New York’s licensing
laws, who describes that state’s statutory authority as “exemplary” but the state’s
use of that authority “shameful.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[iv]</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></div>
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br clear="all" /></span></span>
<br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="edn1" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[i]</span></span></span></span></a> Hixon,
Todd. “Will Telemedicine Change Healthcare Or Prove To Be Another Venture Fad?”
<i>Forbes</i>, 10 June 2016,
www.forbes.com/sites/toddhixon/2016/06/10/will-telemedicine-change-healthcare-or-prove-to-be-another-venture-fad/#418129744248.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[ii]</span></span></span></span></a> COST
OF STATE AND FEDERALLY MANDATED HEALTH BENEFITS </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Report to the Tennessee General Assembly. Prepared by
the Fiscal Review Committee Staff, June 29, 2011</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a> Mitchell,
Matthew D. <i>Tennessee's Certificate-of-Need Program: Lessons from Research</i>.
Mercatus Center - George Mason University, 31 Oct. 2019,
www.mercatus.org/system/files/mitchell_-_testimony_-_testimony_on_tennessees_certificate_of_need_program_-_v1.pdf.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4551862050475559022#_ednref4" name="_edn4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[iv]</span></span></span></span></a> Svorny,
S. (2008, September 17). Medical Licensing: An Obstacle to Affordable, Quality Care.
Retrieved January 3, 2020, from <a href="https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa-621.pdf">https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa-621.pdf</a>.
</span></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Widower and father of three, seeker of libertyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13903810015147152965noreply@blogger.com0